Carpathian Ruthenia
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Carpathian Ruthenia[a] (Rusyn: Карпатьска Русь, romanized: Karpat'ska Rus')[b] is a historical region on the border between Central and Eastern Europe, mostly located in western Ukraine's Zakarpattia Oblast, with smaller parts in eastern Slovakia (largely in Prešov Region and Košice Region) and the Lemko Region in Poland.
From the Hungarian
It is an ethnically diverse region, inhabited mostly by people who regard themselves as ethnic
Toponymy
The name Carpathian Ruthenia is sometimes used for the contiguous cross-border area of Ukraine, Slovakia and Poland inhabited by Ruthenians. The local Ruthenian population self-identifies in different ways: some consider themselves to be Ukrainians; some consider themselves to be Russians; and some consider themselves to be a separate and unique Slavic group of Rusyns. To describe their home region, most Rusyns use the term Zakarpattia (Trans-Carpathia; literally "beyond the Carpathian mountains").[citation needed] This is contrasted implicitly with Prykarpattia (Ciscarpathia; "Near-Carpathia"), an unofficial region in Ukraine, to the immediate north-east of the central area of the Carpathian Range, and potentially including its foothills, the Subcarpathian basin and part of the surrounding plains.[citation needed]
From a Hungarian (and to an extent Slovak and Czech) perspective, the region is usually described as
During the period in which the region was administered by the Hungarian states, it was officially referred to in Hungarian as Kárpátalja (literally: "the base of the Carpathians") or the north-eastern regions of medieval Upper Hungary, which in the 16th century was contested between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed]
The Romanian name of the region is Maramureș, which is geographically located in the eastern and south-eastern portions of the region.[citation needed]
During the period of Czechoslovak administration in the first half of the 20th century, the region was referred to for a while as Rusinsko (Ruthenia) or Karpatske Rusinsko, and later as Subcarpathian Rus (Czech and Slovak: Podkarpatská Rus) or Subcarpathian Ukraine (Czech and Slovak: Podkarpatská Ukrajina), and from 1928 as Subcarpathian Ruthenian Land.[1] (Czech: Země podkarpatoruská, Slovak: Krajina podkarpatoruská).
Alternative, unofficial names used in Czechoslovakia before World War II included Subcarpathia (Czech and Slovak: Podkarpatsko), Transcarpathia (Czech and Slovak: Zakarpatsko), Transcarpathian Ukraine (Czech and Slovak: Zakarpatská Ukrajina), Carpathian Rus/Ruthenia (Czech and Slovak: Karpatská Rus) and, occasionally, Hungarian Rus/Ruthenia (Czech: Uherská Rus; Slovak: Uhorská Rus).[citation needed]
The region declared its independence as Carpatho-Ukraine on March 15, 1939, but was occupied and annexed by Hungary on the same day, and remained under Hungarian control until the end of World War II. During this period the region continued to possess a special administration and the term Kárpátalja was locally used.[2][3]
In 1944–1946, the region was occupied by the Soviet Army and was a separate political formation known as Transcarpathian Ukraine or Subcarpathian Ruthenia. During this period the region possessed some form of quasi-autonomy with its own legislature, while remaining under the governance of the Communist Party of Transcarpathian Ukraine. After the signing of a treaty between
The region has subsequently been referred to as Zakarpattia (Ukrainian: Закарпаття) or Transcarpathia, and on occasions as Carpathian Rus’ (Ukrainian: Карпатська Русь, romanized: Karpatska Rus), Transcarpathian Rus’ (Ukrainian: Закарпатська Русь, romanized: Zakarpatska Rus), or Subcarpathian Rus’ (Ukrainian: Підкарпатська Русь, romanized: Pidkarpatska Rus).[citation needed]
Geography
Carpathian Ruthenia rests on the southern slopes of the eastern
The region is predominantly rural and infrastructurally underdeveloped. The landscape is mostly mountainous; it is geographically separated from Ukraine, Slovakia, and Romania by mountains, and from Hungary by the Tisza river. The two major cities are
History
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2011) |
Prehistoric cultures
During the Late
Slavic settlement
By the 8th and 9th century, the valleys of the Northern and Southern slopes of the
Hungarian arrival
In 896 the Hungarians crossed the Carpathian Range and migrated into the Pannonian Basin.[8] Nestor's Chronicle wrote that Hungarian tribes had to fight against the Volochi and settled among Slavs when on their way to Pannonia. Prince Laborec fell from power under the efforts of the Hungarians and the Kievan forces.[12][13][14] According to Gesta Hungarorum, the Hungarians defeated a united Bulgarian and Byzantine army led by Salan in the early 10th century on the plains of Alpár, who ruled over territory that was finally conquered by Hungarians. During the tenth and for most of the eleventh century the territory remained a borderland between the Kingdom of Hungary to the south and the Kievan Rus' Principality of Halych to the north.[15]
Slavs from the north (
During the early period of Hungarian administration, part of the area was included into the
Between the 12th and 15th centuries, the area was probably colonized by
Part of Hungary and Transylvania
In 1526 the region was divided between the
In the 17th century (until 1648) the entire region was part of the Principality of Transylvania and between 1682 and 1685 its north-western part was administered by the Ottoman vassal state of Upper Hungary, while the south-eastern parts remained under the administration of Transylvania. From 1699 the entire region eventually became part of the Habsburg monarchy, divided between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania. Later, the entire region was included into the Kingdom of Hungary. Between 1850 and 1860 the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary was divided into five military districts, and the region was part of the Military District of Kaschau.
Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
After 1867, the region was administratively included into
In the 19th and 20th centuries, many nationalist groups vied for unification or alignment with many different possible nationalities, all arguing that the Rus people would be better off uniting with that nation for security or staying within the nation of Hungary. Many of these groups utilized the ethnic makeup of the region, with ideas such as the Lemko-Boiko-Hutsul schema looking to prove the Slavic nature of the Rus, and therefore justifying union with Russia (or later a Ukrainian state) under the claim that the Rus were part of that Slavic cultural sphere. These Rus or Ruthenians would argue this point until the early 1900's when action would be taken.[19]
In 1910, the population of Transcarpathia was 605,942, of which 330,010 (54.5%) were speakers of Ruthenian, 185,433 (30.6%) were speakers of Hungarian, 64,257 (10.6%) were speakers of German, 11,668 (1.9%) were speakers of Romanian, 6,346 (1%) were speakers of Slovak or Czech, and 8,228 (1.4%) were speakers of other languages.
- Ung County, Ungvár (Uzhhorod)
- Bereg County, Beregszász (Berehove)
- Ugocsa County, Nagyszőllős (Vynohradiv)
- Máramaros County (only the northern part), Máramarossziget (Sighetu Marmației)
Transitional period (1918–1919)
After
On November 8, 1918, the first National Council (the Lubovňa Council, which later reconvened as the Prešov Council) was held in western Ruthenia. The first of many councils, it simply stated the desire of its members to separate from the newly formed Hungarian state but did not specify a particular alternative—only that it must involve the right to self-determination.[20]
Other councils, such as the Carpatho-Ruthenian National Council meetings in Huszt (Khust) (November 1918), called for unification with the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Only in early January 1919 were the first calls heard in Ruthenia for union with Czechoslovakia.[20]
Rus'ka Krajina
Throughout November and the following few months, councils met every few weeks, calling for various solutions. Some wanted to remain part of the Hungarian Democratic Republic, but with greater autonomy; the most notable of these, the
On February 5, 1919, a provisional government for Rus'ka Krajina was established. The "Rus'ka rada" (or Rusyn Council), was made up of 42 representatives from the four constituent counties and headed by a chairman, Orest Sabov, and vice-chairman, Avhustyn Shtefan. The following month, on March 4, elections were held for a formal diet of 36 deputies. Upon election, the new diet requested the Hungarian government define the borders of the autonomous region, which had not yet been elaborated; without an established territory, the deputies argued that the diet was useless.[21]
On March 21, 1919 the Democratic Republic of Hungary was replaced by the
Fall of Soviet Hungary
Prior to this, in July 1918,
In April 1919, Czechoslovak control on the ground was established, when Czechoslovak Army troops acting in coordination with Royal Romanian Army forces arriving from the east—both acting under French auspices—entered the area. In a series of battles they defeated and crushed the local militias of the newly formed Hungarian Soviet Republic, which had created the Slovak Soviet Republic and whose proclaimed aim was to "unite the Hungarian, Rusyn and Jewish toilers against the exploiters of the same nationalities". Communist sympathizers accused the Czechoslovaks and Romanians of atrocities, such as public hangings and the clubbing to death of wounded prisoners.[23] This fighting prevented the arrival of Soviet aid, for which the Hungarian Communists hoped in vain; the Bolsheviks were also too preoccupied with their own civil war to assist.
In May 1919, a Central National Council convened in the United States under Zatkovich and voted unanimously to accept the admission of Carpathian Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia. Back in Ruthenia, on May 8, 1919, a general meeting of representatives from all the previous councils was held, and declared that "The Central Russian National Council... completely endorse the decision of the American Uhro-Rusin Council to unite with the Czech-Slovak nation on the basis of full national autonomy." Note that the Central Russian National Council was an offshoot of the
The Hungarian left-wing writer Béla Illés claimed that the meeting was little more than a farce, with various "notables" fetched from their homes by police, formed into a "National Assembly" without any semblance of a democratic process, and effectively ordered to endorse incorporation into Czechoslovakia. He further asserts that Clemenceau had personally instructed the French general on the spot to get the area incorporated into Czechoslovakia "at all costs", so as to create a buffer separating Soviet Ukraine from Hungary, as part of the French anti-Communist "Cordon sanitaire" policy, and that it was the French rather than the Czechoslovaks who made the effective decisions.[25]
Part of Czechoslovakia (1920–1938)
The Article 53, Treaty of St. Germain (September 10, 1919) granted the Carpathian Ruthenians autonomy,[26] which was later upheld to some extent by the Czechoslovak constitution. Some rights were, however, withheld by Prague, which justified its actions by claiming that the process was to be a gradual one; and Ruthenians representation in the national sphere was less than that hoped for. Carpathian Ruthenia included former Hungarian territories of Ung County, Bereg County, Ugocsa County and Máramaros County.
After the
In 1920, the area was used as a conduit for arms and ammunition for the anti-Soviet Poles fighting in the
Gregory Žatkovich was appointed governor of the province by Masaryk on April 20, 1920 and resigned almost a year later, on April 17, 1921, to return to his law practice in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US. The reason for his resignation was dissatisfaction with the borders with Slovakia.[30] His tenure is a historical anomaly as the only American citizen ever acting as governor of a province that later became a part of the USSR.
Subcarpathian Rus' (1928–1939)
In 1928,
In the period 1918–1938 the Czechoslovak government attempted to bring the Subcarpathian Rus', with 70% of the population illiterate, no industry, and a herdsman way of life,[31] up to the level of the rest of Czechoslovakia. Thousands of Czech teachers, policemen, clerks and businessmen went to the region. The Czechoslovak government built thousands of kilometers of railways, roads, airports, and hundreds of schools and residential buildings.[31]
The Rusyn people decided to join the new state of Czechoslovakia, a decision that happened parallel to other events that affected these proceedings.[
Carpathian Ukraine (1938–1939)
In November 1938, under the
Following the
Governorate of Subcarpathia (1939–1945)
On March 23, 1939, Hungary
Upon liquidation of Carpatho-Ukraine, in the territory annexed the Governorate of Subcarpathia was installed and divided into three, the administrative branch offices of Ung (Hungarian: Ungi közigazgatási kirendeltség), Bereg (Hungarian: Beregi közigazgatási kirendeltség) and Máramaros (Hungarian: Máramarosi közigazgatási kirendeltség) governed from Ungvár, Munkács and Huszt respectively, having Hungarian and Rusyn language as official languages.
Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population; however, this population was concentrated in the larger towns, especially Mukachevo, where they constituted 43% of the prewar population. After the
The end of the war had a significant impact on the ethnic Hungarian population of the area: 10,000 fled before the arrival of Soviet forces. Many of the remaining adult men (25,000) were deported to the Soviet Union; about 30% of them died in Soviet labor camps. As a result of this development since 1938, the Hungarian and Hungarian-speaking population of Transcarpathia was recorded differently in various censuses and estimations from that time: 1930 census recorded 116,548 ethnic Hungarians, while the contested Hungarian census from 1941 shows as much as 233,840 speakers of Hungarian language in the region. Subsequent estimations are showing 66,000 ethnic Hungarians in 1946 and 139,700 in 1950, while the Soviet census from 1959 recorded 146,247 Hungarians.
Transition to Soviet takeover and control (1944–1945)
The Soviet takeover of the region started with the East Carpathian Strategic Offensive in the fall of 1944. This offensive consisted of two parts: the Battle of the Dukla Pass in effort to support the Slovak National Uprising; and the Battle of Uzhgorod to break through to the Hungarian plains and encircle German troops in Transylvania. On 28 October 1944, upon conclusion of the offensive campaign, most of Subcarpathian Ruthenia was secured by the Workers-Peasants Red Army (RKKA).
The Czechoslovak government delegation led by minister František Němec arrived in
On 14 November 1944 the underground radio "Vladislav" transmitted the following message from Khust to London: "The Red Army is subjugating everything to it. We are requesting information, whether it is discussed with the government. Our situation is critical. An open campaign is ongoing for uniting Subcarpathian Ukraine with the Soviet Union. Forced recruitment to the ranks of the Red Army. People are uneducated. Awaiting your recommendations. We urgently need instructions from the government."[35]
On 5 November 1944, in anticipation of Soviet rule, the Uzhgorod city council introduced
In November 1944, in
The "National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine" was set up in
Transcarpathian Ukraine–Soviet Union (1945–1991)
On 29 June 1945, Czechoslovakia signed a treaty with the Soviet Union, officially ceding the region.[38][39] Between 1945 and 1947, the new Soviet authorities fortified the new borders, and in July 1947 declared Transcarpathia as a "restricted zone of the highest level", with checkpoints on the mountain passes connecting the region to mainland Ukraine.[36]
In December 1944 the National Council of Transcarpatho-Ukraine set up a special people's tribunal in
After breaking the Greek Catholic Church in Eastern Galicia in 1946, Soviet authorities pushed for the return to Orthodoxy of Greek-Catholic parishes in Transcarpathia too, including by engineering an accident leading to the death of recalcitrant bishop Theodore Romzha on 1 November 1947. In January 1949 the Greek-Catholic Eparchy of Mukachevo was declared illegal; remaining priests and nuns were arrested, and church properties were nationalised and parcelled for public use or lent to the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), the only accepted religious authority in the region.[36]
Cultural institutions were also forbidden, including the Russophile Dukhnovych Society, the Ukrainophile Prosvita, and the Subcarpathian Scholarly Society. New books and publications were circulated, including the Zakarpatsk'a Pravda (130,000 copies). The Uzhhorod National University was opened in 1945 and over 816 cinematographs were open by 1967. The Ukrainian language was the first language of instruction in schools throughout the region, followed by Russian, which was used in academia.[citation needed] Most new generations had a passive knowledge of Rusyn language, but no knowledge about local culture. XIX-century Rusyn intellectuals were labelled as "members of the reactionary class and instruments of Vatican obscurantism". The Rusyn anthem and hymn were banned from public performance. Carpatho-Rusyn folk culture and songs, which were promoted, were presented as part of Transcarpathian regional culture as a local variant of Ukrainian culture.[36][40]
In 1924, the
In February 1945, the National Council confiscated 53,000 hectares of land from large landowners and redistribute it to 54,000 peasant households (37% of the population).
The Soviet period also meant the upscaling of industrialization in Transcarpathia. State-owned lumber mills, chemical and food-processing plants widened, with Mukachevo's tobacco factory and Solotvyno's salt works as the biggest ones, providing steady employment to the residents of the region, beyond the traditional subsistence agriculture. And while traditional labour migration routes to the fields of Hungary or the factories of the United States were now closed, Carpathian Ruthens and Romanians could now move for seasonal work in Russia's North and East.[36]
The inhabitants of the region grew steadily in the Soviet period, from 776,000 in 1946 to over 1.2 million in 1989. Uzhgorod's population increased five-fold, from 26,000 to 117,000, and Mukachevo likewise from 26,600 to 84,000. This population increase also reflected demographic changes. The arrival of the Red Army meant the departure of 5,100 Magyars and 2,500 Germans, while 15–20,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust also decided to move out before the borders were sealed. By 1945, around 30,000 Hungarians and Germans had been interned and sent for labour camps in Eastern Ukraine and Siberia; while amnestied in 1955, around 5,000 did not come back. In January 1946, 2,000 more Germans were deported. In return, a large number of Ukrainians and Russians moved to Transcarpathia, were they found jobs in the industry, the military, or the civilian administration. By 1989, around 170,000 Ukrainians (mainly from nearby Galizia) and 49,000 Russians were living in Transcarpatia, mainly in new residential blocks in the main towns of Uzhgorod and Mukachevo, where the dominant language had soon turned from Hungarian and Yiddish to Russian. They kept being considered newcomers (novoprybuli) due to their disconnect from the Rusyn- and Hungarian-speaking countryside.[36]
Transition to independent Ukraine (1991–)
In July 1991 the
Because of the situation in the region, on 26 August 1991 the deputy chairman of the regional council Yuriy Vorobets signed an order to hold an extraordinary session of the council on 30 August, but on 29 August the head of the council Mykhailo Voloshchuk (formerly the 1st secretary of the Zakarpattia regional communist party committee) postponed it by a separate order.[41] On 28 August 1991 the demand for the extraordinary session was supported by the Zakarpattia Democratic League of Youth that previously was part of the Komsomol of Ukraine (LKSMU).[41] To relieve the pressure, Voloshchuk approved a composition of provisional deputy commission for inspection of activity of officials during the putsch that consisted of 17 members mostly of the recently dissolved Communist Party and couple of Rukh members (Mykhailo Tyvodar and Lyubov Karavanska).[41] At the same time Voloshchuk was urgently seeking for other managing positions for other party officials who lost their job with recent liquidation of the party.[41] Concurrently, the regional ispolkom (executive committee) suddenly registered 208 religious communities and transferred property ownership of 83 church buildings to them.[41]
The government of Zakarpattia decided to bet on separatist actions.
By the end of September 1991 in
On 27 September 1991 it was finally announced about the extraordinary session of the regional council.[41] The leadership of the council planned to end its work the same day, but the session stretched until 31 October 1991 and the center of political life in Zakarpattia Oblast had relocated to the regional council and the People's Square in front of the council's building.[41]
In December 1991 Zakarpattia became a part of independent Ukraine. A majority 92.59% of voters of Zakarpattia oblast approved the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine.[42] On the same day in Zakarpattia oblast a regional referendum also took place. 78 percent of voters voted for autonomy within Ukraine, which was not granted.[43]
Demographics
Ethnic groups
Census | Ruthenians, Ukrainians and Rusyns |
"Czechoslovaks" ( Slovaks )
|
Germans | Hungarians | Jews | Romanians | Others | Total population |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1880 | 244,742 (59.8%) | 8,611 (2.1%) | 31,745 (7.8%) | 105,343 (25.8%) | (not a census option) | 16,713 (4.1%) | 1,817 (0.4%) | 408,971 (100%) |
1921[44] | 372,884 (63.0%) | 19,737 (3.3%) | 10,460 (1.8%) | 102,144 (17.3%) | 80,059 (13.5%) | (with "others") | 6,760 (1.1%) | 592,044 (100%) |
1930[45] | 450,925 (62.2%) | 34,511 (4.8%) | 13,804 (1.9%) | 115,805 (16.0%) | 95,008 (13.1%) | 12,777 (1.8%) | 2,527 (0.4%) | 725,357 (100%) |
1959[46] | 686,464 (74.6%) | Slovaks 12,289 (1.3%) Czechs 964 (0.1%) |
3,504 (0.4%) | 146,247 (15.9%) | 12,169 (1.3%) | 18,346 (2%) | Russians 29,599 (3.2%) |
920,173 (100%) |
1970[47] | 808,131 (76.5%) | Slovaks 9,573 (0.9%) Czechs 721 (0.1%) |
4,230 (0.4%) | 151,949 (14.4%) | 10,856 (1%) | 23,454 (2.2%) | Russians 35,189 (3.3%) |
1,056,799 (100%) |
1979[48] | 898,606 (77.8%) | Slovaks 8,245 (0.7%) Czechs 669 (0.1%) |
3,746 (0.3%) | 158,446 (13.7%) | 3,848 (0.3%) | 27,155 (2.3%) | Russians 41,713 (3.6%) |
1,155,759 (100%) |
1989[49] | 976,749 (78.4%) | Slovaks 7,329 (0.6%) |
3,478 (0.3%) | 155,711 (12.5%) | 2,639 (0.2%) | 29,485 (2.4%) | Russians 49,456 (4.0%) Romani (1.0%) |
1,245,618 (100%) |
2001[50] | Ukrainians (including Rusyns) 1,010,100 (80.5%) |
Slovaks 5,600 (0.5%) |
3,500 (0.3%) | 151,500 (12.1%) | no data | 32,100 (2.6%) | Russians 31,000 (2.5%) Roma 14,000 (1.1%) Others (0.4%) |
(100%) |
Religion
According to a 2015 survey, 68% of the population of Zakarpattia Oblast adheres to
The Orthodox community of Zakarpattia is divided as follows:
- Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kyiv Patriarchate – 42%[citation needed]
- Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate – 33%
- Non-denominational – 25%
Issue with self-identity: Ukrainians or Rusyns
Carpathian Ruthenia is inhabited mainly by people who self-identify as Ukrainians, many of whom may refer to themselves as Rusyns, Rusnak or Lemko. Places inhabited by Rusyns also span adjacent regions of the Carpathian Mountains, including regions of present-day Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Romania. Ruthenian settlements exist in the Balkans as well.
In the 19th century and the first part of the 20th, the inhabitants of Transcarpathia continued to call themselves "Ruthenians" ("Rusyny"). After Soviet annexation the ethnonym "Ukrainian", which had replaced "Ruthenian" in eastern Ukraine at the turn of the century, was also applied to Ruthenians/Rusyns of Transcarpathia. Most present-day inhabitants consider themselves ethnically Ukrainians, although in the most recent census 10,100 people (0.8% of Zakarpattia Oblast's 1.26 million) identified themselves as ethnically Rusyn.
Hungarians
The following data is according to the Ukrainian census of 2001.
The 1910 Austro-Hungarian census showed 185,433 speakers of the
The end of World War II had a significant impact on the ethnic Hungarian population of the area: 10,000 fled before the arrival of Soviet forces. Many of the remaining adult men (25,000) were deported to the Soviet Union; about 30% of them died in Soviet labor camps. As a result of this development since 1938, the Hungarian and Hungarian-speaking population of Transcarpathia was recorded differently in various censuses and estimations from that time: 1930 census recorded 116,548 ethnic Hungarians, while the contested Hungarian census from 1941 shows as much as 233,840 speakers of Hungarian language in the region. Subsequent estimations are showing 66,000 ethnic Hungarians in 1946 and 139,700 in 1950, while the Soviet census from 1959 recorded 146,247 Hungarians.
As of 2004[update], about 170,000 (12–13%) inhabitants of Transcarpathia declare Hungarian as their mother tongue. Homeland Hungarians refer to Hungarians in Ukraine as kárpátaljaiak.
Jews
Memoirs and historical studies provide much evidence that in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Rusyn-Jewish relations were generally peaceful. In 1939, census records showed that 80,000 Jews lived in the autonomous province of Ruthenia. Jews made up approximately 14% of the prewar population; however, this population was concentrated in the larger towns, especially
Germans
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See Carpathian Germans for more information (mainly Germans from Bohemia, Moravia and the territories from present-day central and eastern Germany) about their settlement in the 16th to 18th centuries.
Czechs
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Czechs in Carpathian Ruthenia are ethnoculturally distinct from other West Slavic groups like the Slovaks, as they originated from Czech-speaking groups from Bohemia and Moravia instead of Slovakia.
Romani
There are approximately 25,000 ethnic Romani in present-day Transcarpathia. Some estimates point to a number as high as 50,000 but a true count is hard to obtain as many Roma cannot afford ID documents for themselves and their children.[52] Additionally, many Romani will claim to be Hungarian or Romanian when interviewed by Ukrainian authorities.[citation needed]
They are by far the poorest and least-represented ethnic group in the region and face intense prejudice. The years since the fall of the Soviet Union have not been kind to the Romani of the region, as they have been particularly hard hit by the economic problems faced by peoples all over the former USSR. Some Romani in western Ukraine live in major cities such as Uzhhorod and Mukachevo, but most live in ghettos on the outskirts of cities. These ghettos are known as "taberi" and can house up to 300 families. These encampments tend to be fairly primitive with no running water or electricity.[53]
Romanians
Today some 30,000 Romanians live in this region, mostly in northern Maramureș, around the southern towns of Rahău/Rakhiv and Teceu Mare/Tiachiv and close to the border with Romania. However, there also are Romanians in Carpathian Ruthenia living outside Maramureș, mostly in the village of Poroshkovo. They are usually called volohi in Romanian]and live closer to Poland and Slovakia than Romania.[54]
Greeks
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There are a few Greeks in Carpathian Ruthenia. They are also known as Carpatho-Greeks and Greek-Carpathians.[citation needed]
Carpatho-Rus under western eyes
For 19th-century west-European readers, Ruthenia was an inspiration for "Ruritania", a rustic province lost in forested mountains.[citation needed] Conceived as a Central European kingdom, Ruritania was the setting for several of Anthony Hope's novels, including The Prisoner of Zenda (1894).[citation needed]
A century later Vesna Goldsworthy, in Inventing Ruritania: the Imperialism of the Imagination (1998), theorizes on ideas underpinning western views of Europe's "Wild East", especially Ruthenia and some Slavic Balkan areas. She sees these ideas as highly applicable to Transcarpathia and describes "an innocent process: a cultural great power seizes and exploits the resources of an area, while imposing new frontiers on its mind-map and creating ideas which, reflected back, have the ability to reshape reality.”[citation needed]
See also
- Black Ruthenia
- Red Ruthenia
- White Ruthenia
- Military history of Carpathian Ruthenia during World War II
- Ruthenians and Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
- Eparchy of Mukačevo and Prešov
- Alexander Dukhnovych
- Avgustyn Voloshyn
- Ukrainian dialects
- Kárpátalja football team
- Magyaron
Notes
- ^ Also Transcarpathian Ruthenia, Transcarpathian Ukraine, Rusinko, Subcarpathian Rus', Subcarpathia
- ^ Additionally: Ukrainian: Закарпаття, romanized: Zakarpattia; Slovak: Podkarpatská Rus; Hungarian: Kárpátalja; Romanian: Transcarpatia; Polish: Zakarpacie; Russian: Карпатская Русь, romanized: Karpatskaya Rus'; Czech: Podkarpatská Rus; German: Karpatenukraine
- ^ Similarly as in Galicia, Subcarpathian Ruthenia also had two main movements for self determination (Ukrainophile and Russophile).[24]
References
- ^ "Subcarpathian Rus'/Podkarpats'ka Rus'". Archived from the original on 2008-07-24. Retrieved 2007-06-10.
- ^ Shandor 1997, pp. 257–258
- ^ Markus, Vasyl (1954). "Carpatho-Ukraine under Hungarian Occupation". The Ukrainian Quarterly. 10 (3): 252ff.
- ^ "Transcarpathian Ukraine". The Great Soviet Encyclopedia (third (1970–1979) ed.) – via The Free Dictionary.
- )
- ^ ISBN 9660006101.)
Тут знайдено чимало предметів часів мідного віку, бронзового віку та залізного віку. Помірно континентальний клімат і природні багатства Закарпаття роблять цю місцевість привабливою для проживання. Тут свого часу осіли фракійські племена, які залишили після себе пам'ятки куштановицької культури, та кельти, репрезентовані пам'ятками латенської к-ри (див. Латенські пам'ятки). Вчені вважають, що в Закарпатті в 3–1 ст. до н. е. склалася змішана кельто-фракійська к-ра, на основі якої утворився досить стійкий симбіоз племен, що проіснував бл. 200 років і сприяв поширенню цивілізаційних досягнень із зх. на укр. тер. Пізніше на Закарпатті з'явилися бастарни (їхня етнічна приналежність не з'ясована). В 2 ст. н. е. ч. Закарпаття була приєднана до рим. провінції Дакія. В часи Великого переселення народів через Закарпаття проходили гуни й авари. На Закарпатті побували герм. племена, в т. ч. гепіди. З перших століть н. е. почалося розселення слов'ян. За археол. даними, з 2 ст. н. е. тут міцно осіло хліборобське слов'ян. нас. – білі хорвати (див. Хорвати), матеріальна й духовна к-ра яких була тісно пов'язана з к-рою східнослов'ян. племен, що населяли Прикарпаття, Волинь, Придністров'я і Придніпров'я. В 9–10 ст. Закарпаття входило до складу Болг. д-ви, а з 2-ї пол. 10 ст. перебувало у сфері впливу Київської Русі, про що свідчить, зокрема, міграція сюди нас. із Прикарпаття. В "Повісті временних літ" є згадки про участь білих хорватів у війнах київ. князів проти Візантії та про похід вел. кн. київ. Володимира Святославича на білих хорватів 992. З того часу за Закарпаттям закріплюється назва "Русь". Після смерті вел. кн. київ. Володимира Святославича (1015) Закарпаття почав завойовувати угор. король Стефан I, його син Емеріх мав титул "князь русинів". На поч. 13 ст. всі землі Закарпаття опинилися під владою Угорщини. До поч. 20 ст. Закарпаття, перебуваючи в складі Угорщини, Австрії та Австро-Угорщини, мало назву "Угорська Русь".
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In Transcarpathia, descendants of the Thracian Hallstatt culture constituted the Kushtanovytsia culture in the 6th to 3rd centuries BC. In the course of the 2nd and 1st centuries BC the indigenous Thracian and proto-Slavic population of Transcarpathia, western Podilia, Bukovyna, Galicia, and Volhynia intermingled with the Celtic tribes of the La Tàene culture that spread there from central Europe.
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In the Bronze Age (ca 1800 BC) Transcarpathia maintained continuity in its painted pottery style of the Stanove culture but gained metalworking skills (swords, knives, sickles, axes) as a result of the arrival of Thracian tribes from Transylvania. Subsequently Transcarpathia came under the control of the Celts, who arrived from the west and brought with them iron-smelting (ca 400–200 BC); the first local coins were minted in the 3rd century BC. Of the eastern nomadic peoples the earliest to influence Transcarpathia were the Iranian-speaking Scythians (expressed locally from the 6th century BC in the Kushtanovytsia culture) and then the Iazyges, a Sarmatian tribe confronting the Romans in Dacia (50 AD); their influence was followed by the invasions of the Turkic-speaking Huns (380 AD), the Avars (558 AD), and, finally, the Ugro-Finnic Magyars (896 AD). In the 2nd century AD neighboring Dacia (Transylvania) became a Roman province, and Roman merchants visited Transcarpathia. In the early Middle Ages Transcarpathia was traversed by Germanic tribes. Remnants of the Ostrogoths (the Gepidae) remained in neighboring Transylvania until the 10th century. The Slavic colonization of Transcarpathia began in the 2nd century, with migration from the north across the mountain passes. By the 8th and 9th centuries the lowlands of Transcarpathia were fairly densely peopled by White Croatians (at the time inhabiting both the north and the south side of the Carpathians). The Slavs in the upper Tysa River and in Transylvania were subject to the Avars (6th–8th centuries) and later to the Bulgarian kingdom (9th–10th centuries). With the collapse of Bulgaria in the second half of the 10th century, Transcarpathia came under the sphere of influence of the Kievan Rus'. The Kievan chroniclers noted the participation of the White Croatians in the campaigns on Byzantium. Following the incorporation of the White Croatians by Prince Volodymyr the Great into his realm, the name Rus' or Ruthenia became entrenched in Transcarpathia.
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ignored (help - ^ Magocsi, Paul Robert (1995). "The Carpatho-Rusyns". Carpatho-Rusyn American. XVIII (4). Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center.
- ISBN 978-0802047380.
- ISBN 978-8662630261.
- ^ Uzhgorod and Mukachevo: a guide, Dmitriĭ Ivanovich Pop, Ivan Ivanovich Pop, Raduga Publishers, 1987, p. 14.,
- ISBN 978-0865166110– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0313310065– via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-0295972480.
- ISBN 9780521824422. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
- ^ Kincses-Nagy, Eva (2013). "A Disappeared People and a Disappeared Language: The Cumans and the Cuman language of Hungary".
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ "Images" (JPG). www.conflicts.rem33.com.
- ^ Magocsi, Paul (2015). With Their Backs to the Mountains: A History of Carpathian Rus' and Carpatho-Rusyns. New York: Central European University Press. p. 5. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
- ^ ISBN 978-8087173473, pp. 35–53, 106–107, 111–112, 124–125, 128, 129, 132, 140–148, 184–199.
- ^ )
- ISBN 978-8087173473, pp. 87–89, 110–112, 124–128, 140–148, 184–190
- ^ Quoted extensively in Béla Illés, "A Carpathian Raphosody", 1939
- ^ Shevchenko, K. How Subcarpathian Ruthenian became Carpathian Ukraine (Как Подкарпатская Русь стала Карпатской Украиной). Zapadnaya Rus. 4 April 2011
- ^ Illés, op.cit.
- ^ "Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Austria; Protocol, Declaration and Special Declaration [1920] ATS 3". www.austlii.edu.au.
- ^ "www.hungarian-history.hu" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
- Budyonny's Red Cavalry
- OCLC 86068902.
- ^ "www.hungarian-history.hu" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2014-01-07. p. 223
- ^ a b c "Subcarpathian Rus – Podkarpatska Rus". Archived from the original on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2009-08-02.
- ISBN 978-0195305463, pp. 128–130
- ^ Paul R. Magocsi. Ivan Ivanovich Pop. Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture. University of Toronto Press. 2002. p. 512.
- ^ a b c d (in Ukrainian) Today is the 80th anniversary of the proclamation of the Carpathian Ukraine, Ukrinform (15 March 2019)
- ^ a b c d e Bryzh, Yevhen. 365 days. Our history. 26 November. How Transcarpathia "voluntarily" and decisively became Ukraine (365 днів. Наша історія. 26 листопада. Як Закарпаття "добровільно" і остаточно стало Україною). Poltava 365. 26 November 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h With Their Backs to the Mountains: A History of Carpathian Rus? and Carpatho-Rusyns, by Paul Robert Magocsi, Central European University Press, 2015
- ^ a b c d Hranchak, I. Communist Party of Zakarpattia Ukraine (КОМУНІСТИЧНА ПАРТІЯ ЗАКАРПАТСЬКОЇ УКРАЇНИ). Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopedia.
- ^ "On this Day, in 1945: Carpathian Ruthenia was annexed by the Soviet Union". Kafkadesk. 29 June 1992. Archived from the original on 26 July 2021.
- ISBN 978-0521058582.; for a copy of the treaty see British and Foreign State Papers, volume cxlv, p. 1096.
- ^ [1]| Воскресеніє народ, Resurrection Of A Nation, John and Helen Timo Foundation 2019
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Pipash, Volodymyr. Political confrontations in Zakarpattia in the fall of 1991. To the 20th Anniversary of Ukrainian Independence. Part 4 (Політичне протистояння на Закарпатті восени 1991 р. До двадцятиріччя Незалежності України. Ч. 4). Zakarpattia online. 22 September 2011
- ^ "До 15-ї річниці Всеукраїнського референдуму". archives.gov.ua. ЦДАВО України. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ "'Novyny Zakarpattya', the newspaper of the Regional Council of People's Deputies". No. 231.
- ^ Slovenský náučný slovník, I. zväzok, Bratislava-Český Těšín, 1932
- ^ Nikolaus G. Kozauer, Die Karpaten-Ukraine zwischen den beiden Weltkriegen, Esslingen am Neckar 1979, p. 136
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1959 года. Распределение городского и сельского населения областей республик СССР по полу и национальности". www.demoscope.ru. Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1970 года. Распределение городского и сельского населения областей республик СССР по полу и национальности". www.demoscope.ru. Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1979 года. Городское и сельское население областей республик СССР (кроме РСФСР) по полу и национальности". www.demoscope.ru. Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года. Распределение городского и сельского населения областей республик СССР по полу и национальности". www.demoscope.ru. Демоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей. Retrieved 11 February 2020.
- ^ Про кількість та склад населення Закарпатської області за підсумками Всеукраїнського перепису населення 2001 року [About the number and composition of the Transcarpathian oblast according to the results of the National Census of 2001] (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 30 April 2009.
- ^ a b "Релігійні вподобання населення України". 26 May 2015.
- ^ Nikolay, Polischuk (May 12, 2016). "Stay Where There Are Songs: How Thousands of Roma People Survive in Transcarpathia". Bird in Flight. Retrieved June 1, 2022.
- ^ "Romani Yag. Roma Public News. Interukrainian Biweekly". Archived from the original on 2007-03-14. Retrieved 2008-12-26.
- ^ Peiu, Petrisor (2 February 2020). "Și ei sunt români. Și ei sunt ai noștri. Și ei au nevoie de România". Ziare.com (in Romanian).
Sources
- Baerlein, Henri (1938). In Czechoslovakia's Hinterland, Hutchinson. ASIN B00085K1BA
- Boysak, Basil (1963). The Fate of the Holy Union in Carpatho-Ukraine, Toronto-New York.
- (in Russian) Fentsik, Stefan A. (1935). Greetings from the Old Country to all of the American Russian people! (Pozdravlenije iz staroho Kraja vsemu Amerikanskomu Karpatorusskomu Narodu!). ASIN B0008C9LY6
- Nemec, Frantisek, and Vladimir Moudry (2nd ed., 1980). The Soviet Seizure of Subcarpathian Ruthenia, Hyperion Press. ISBN 0830500855
- (in German) Ganzer, Christian (2001). Die Karpato-Ukraine 1938/39: Spielball im internationalen Interessenkonflikt am Vorabend des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Hamburg (Die Ostreihe – Neue Folge, Heft 12).
- (in German) Kotowski, Albert S. (2001). "Ukrainisches Piemont"? Die Karpartenukraine am Vorabend des Zweiten Weltkrieges, in Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 49, Heft 1. S. 67–95.
- Krofta, Kamil (1934). Carpathian Ruthenia and the Czechoslovak Republic. ASIN B0007JY0OG
- S2CID 144778333. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2019-12-05. Retrieved 2019-03-19.
- S2CID 155615547. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2019-04-28. Retrieved 2019-03-19.
- ISBN 978-0674805798.
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- Magocsi, Paul R. – Pop, Ivan. Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and culture, Univ. of Toronto Press, 2005. ISBN 0802035663
- (in Czech) Pop, Ivan. Dějiny Podkarpatské Rusi v datech. Libri, Praha 2005. ISBN 8072772376
- (in Ukrainian) Rosokha, Stepan (1949). Parliament of Carpatho-Ukraine (Coйм Карпатськoї України), Ukrainian National Publishing Co., Ltd. for Culture and Knowledge (Культура й ocвiтa).
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- Stercho, Peter (1959). Carpatho-Ukraine in International Affairs: 1938–1939, Notre Dame.
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- John Slivka. The History of the Greek Rite Gatholics in Pannonia, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Podkarpatska Rus 863–1949. 1974.
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External links
- The Carpatho-Rusyn knowledge base
- Paul R. Magocsi, Carpatho-Rusyns, brochure published by The Carpatho-Rusyn Research Center, 1995
- Carpatho-Ukraine (Encyclopedia of Ukraine)
- Diet of Carpatho-Ukraine (Encyclopedia of Ukraine)
- Trans-Carpathia in UkrStor.com (the web library of historical documents & publicism about Malorussia/Ukraine)
- Ethnic structure of the population on the present territory of Transcarpathia (1880–1989)
- (in Russian and Ukrainian) Mykola Vehesh, The greatness and the tragedy of Carpathian Ukraine, ]
- Zakarpattia.ru (in Ukrainian)
- (in Hungarian) Kárpátinfo
- Carpathian Ruthenia – photographs and information
- "Ruthenia – Spearhead Toward the West", by Senator Charles J. Hokky, Former Member of the Czechoslovakian Parliament