Geography of Nepal
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Continent | Asia |
---|---|
Region | Southern Asia coordinates = 28°00′N 84°00′E / 28.000°N 84.000°E |
Area | Karnali |
Largest lake | Rara Lake |
Nepal measures about 880 kilometers (547 mi) along its Himalayan axis by 150 to 250 kilometers (93 to 155 mi) across. It has an area of 147,516 km2 (56,956 sq mi).[1]
Nepal is landlocked by China's Tibet Autonomous Region to the north and India on other three sides. West Bengal's narrow Siliguri Corridor separate Nepal and Bangladesh. To the east are Bhutan and India.
Nepal has a very high degree of geographic diversity and can be divided into three main regions: Terai, Hilly, and Himal. The Terai region, covering 17% of Nepal's area, is a lowland region with some hill ranges and is culturally more similar to parts of India. The Hilly region, encompassing 68% of the country's area, consists of mountainous terrain without snow and is inhabited by various indigenous ethnic groups. The Himal region, covering 15% of Nepal's area, contains snow and is home to several high mountain ranges, including Mount Everest, the world's highest peak. Nepal, with elevations ranging from less than 100 meters to over 8,000 meters, has eight climate zones from tropical to perpetual snow. The majority of the country's population resides in the tropical and subtropical climate zones. The tropical zone, below 1,000 meters, experiences frost less than once per decade and is suitable for growing various fruits and crops. The subtropical climate zone, from 1,000 to 2,000 meters, is the most prevalent and suitable for growing rice, maize, millet, wheat, and other crops. The temperate climate zone, from 2,000 to 3,000 meters, occupies 12% of Nepal's land area and is suitable for cold-tolerant crops. The subalpine, alpine, and nival zones have progressively fewer human settlements and agricultural activities.
Seasons are divided into a wet season from June to September and a dry season from October to June. The summer monsoon can cause flooding and landslides, while the winter monsoon is marked by occasional rainfall and snowfall. The diverse elevation results in various biomes, including tropical savannas, subtropical and temperate forests, montane grasslands, and shrublands.
Nepal has three categories of rivers: the largest systems (Koshi, Gandaki/Narayani, Karnali/Goghra, and Mahakali), second category rivers (rising in the Middle Hills and Lower Himalayan Range), and third category rivers (rising in the outermost Siwalik foothills and mostly seasonal). These rivers can cause serious floods and pose challenges to transportation and communication networks. River management involves addressing flooding, sedimentation, and sustainable water sources for irrigation. Building dams in Nepal is controversial due to seismic activity, glacial lake formation, sedimentation rates, and cross-border equity issues between India and Nepal.
Nepal's land cover is dominated by forests, which cover 39.09% of the country's total geographical area, followed by agriculture areas at 29.83%. The hill region constitutes the largest portion of Nepal, with significant cultivated lands and natural vegetation. Forests in Nepal face deforestation due to over-harvesting of firewood, illegal logging, clearing for agriculture, and infrastructure expansion. As of 2010, 64.8% of the forested area in Nepal is covered by core forests of more than 500 ha in size. Deforestation and degradation are driven by multiple processes, including firewood harvesting, construction, urban expansion, and illegal logging.
Nepal has consistently been ranked as one of the most polluted countries in the world.[2][3][4][5][6][7]
Landform regions
For a country of its size, Nepal has tremendous geographic diversity. It rises from as low as 59 metres (194 ft) elevation in the tropical
Forming south-to-north transects, Nepal can be divided into three belts: Terai, Pahad and Himal. In the other direction, it is divided into three major river systems, east to west:
Himal
Himal Region is a mountainous region containing snow. The Mountain Region begins where high ridges (Nepali: लेक; lekh) begin substantially rising above 3,000 metres (10,000 ft) into the
There are some 20 subranges including the
Mountain | Height | Section | Location | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mount Everest (Highest in the world) |
8,848 m | 29,029 ft | Khumbu Mahalangur | Province No. 1 (Nepal-China Border)
|
Kangchenjunga (3rd highest in the world) |
8,586 m | 28,169 ft | Northern Kanchenjunga | Province No. 1 (Nepal-India Border)
|
Lhotse (4th highest in the world) |
8,516 m | 27,940 ft | Everest Group | Province No. 1 (Nepal-China Border)
|
Makalu (5th highest in the world) |
8,462 m | 27,762 ft | Makalu Mahalangur | Province No. 1 (Nepal-China Border)
|
Cho Oyu (6th highest in the world) |
8,201 m | 26,906 ft | Khumbu Mahalangur | Province No. 1 (Nepal-China Border)
|
Dhaulagiri (7th highest in the world) |
8,167 m | 26,795 ft | Dhaulagiri | Dhaulagiri, Myagdi District, |
Manaslu (8th highest in the world) |
8,163 m | 26,759 ft | Mansiri Himal | Tsum Nubri, Manang District ,
|
Annapurna (10th highest in the world) |
8,091 m | 26,545 ft | Annapurna Massif
|
Annapurna, Kaski District / Annapurna, Myagdi District, |
Trans-Himalayan
The main watershed between the
—cut between Himalayan sub ranges or lie north of them.Some of these valleys historically were more accessible from
Permanent villages in the mountain region stand as high as 4,500 metres (15,000 ft) with summer encampments even higher. Bhotiyas graze yaks, grow cold-tolerant crops such as potatoes, barley, buckwheat and millet. They traditionally traded across the mountains, e.g., Tibetan salt for rice from lowlands in Nepal and India. Since trade was restricted in the 1950s they have found work as high altitude porters, guides, cooks and other accessories to tourism and alpinism.[10]
Hilly
Hilly Region is a mountain region which does not generally contain snow. It is situated to the south of the Himal Region (the snowy mountain region). This region begins at the Lower Himalayan Range, where a fault system called the Main Boundary Thrust creates an escarpment 1,000 to 1,500 metres (3,000 to 5,000 ft) high, to a crest between 1,500 and 2,700 metres (5,000 and 9,000 ft). It covers 68% of the total area of Nepal.
These steep southern slopes are nearly uninhabited, thus an effective buffer between languages and culture in the Terai and Hilly.
Other indigenous Janajati ethnic groups -— natively speaking highly localized Tibeto-Burman languages and dialects -— populate hillsides up to about 2,500 metres (8,000 ft). This group includes
The Hilly ends where ridges begin substantially rising out of the
Terai
Terai is a low land region containing some hill ranges. Looking out for its coverage, it covers 17% of the total area of Nepal. The Terai (also spelt Tarai) region begins at the Indian border and includes the southernmost part of the flat, intensively farmed
The Outer Terai is culturally more similar to adjacent parts of India's
languages.The Outer Terai ends at the base of the first range of foothills called the Siwaliks or Churia. This range has a densely forested skirt of coarse alluvium called the Bhabhar. Below the Bhabhar, finer, less permeable sediments force groundwater to the surface in a zone of springs and marshes. In Persian, terai refers to wet or marshy ground. Before the use of DDT this was dangerously malarial. Nepal's rulers used this for a defensive frontier called the char kose jhadi (four kos forest, one kos equaling about three kilometers or two miles).
Above the Bhabhar belt, the Siwaliks rise to about 700 metres (2,297 ft) with peaks as high as 1,000 metres (3,281 ft), steeper on their southern flanks because of faults are known as the Main Frontal Thrust. This range is composed of poorly consolidated, coarse sediments that do not retain water or support soil development so there is virtually no agricultural potential and sparse population.
In several places beyond the Siwaliks, there are dūn valleys called Inner Terai. These valleys have productive soil but were dangerously malarial except to indigenous Tharu people who had genetic resistance. In the mid-1950s DDT came into use to suppress mosquitos and the way was open to settlement from the land-poor hills, to the detriment of the Tharu.
The Terai ends and the Pahad begin at a higher range of foothills called the Lower Himalayan Range.
Climate
Altitudinal belts
Nepal's latitude is about the same as that of the United States state of Florida, however with elevations ranging from less than 100 meters (300 ft) to over 8,000 meters (26,000 ft) and precipitation from 160 millimeters (6 in) to over 5,000 millimeters (16 ft) the country has eight climate zones from tropical to perpetual snow.[11]
The and mangoes of lower quality grow in the upper tropical zone as well. Winter crops include grains and vegetables typically grown in temperate climates. The Outer Terai is virtually all in the lower tropical zone. Inner Terai valleys span both tropical zones. The Sivalik Hills are mostly upper tropical. Tropical climate zones extend far upriver valleys across the Middle Hills and even into the Mountain regions.
The subtropical climate zone from 1,000 to 2,000 meters (3,300 to 6,600 ft) occupies 22% of Nepal's land area and is the most prevalent climate of the Middle Hills above river valleys. It experiences frost up to 53 days per year, however, this varies greatly with elevation, proximity to high mountains and terrain either draining or ponding cold air drainage. Crops include rice, maize, millet, wheat, potato, stone fruits and citrus.
The great majority of Nepal's population occupies the tropical and subtropical climate zones. In the Middle Hills, "upper-caste" Hindus are concentrated in tropical valleys which are well suited for rice cultivation while Janajati ethnic groups mostly live above in the subtropical zone and grow other grains more than rice.
The Temperate climate zone from 2,000 to 3,000 meters (6,600 to 9,800 ft) occupies 12% of Nepal's land area and has up to 153 annual days of frost. It is encountered in higher parts of the Middle Hills and throughout much of the Mountain region. Crops include cold-tolerant rice, maize, wheat, barley, potato, apple, walnut, peach, various cole, amaranthus and buckwheat.
The
The
Above 5,000 meters the climate becomes Nival and there is no human habitation or even seasonal use.
Arid and semi-arid land in the
Precipitation generally decreases from east to west with increasing distance from the Bay of Bengal, source of the summer monsoon. Eastern Nepal gets about 2,500 mm (100 in) annually; the Kathmandu area about 1,400 mm (55 in) and western Nepal about 1,000 mm (40 in). This pattern is modified by adiabatic effects as rising air masses cool and drop their moisture content on windward slopes, then warm up as they descend so relative humidity drops. Annual precipitation reaches 5,500 mm (18 ft) on windward slopes in the Annapurna Himalaya beyond a relatively low stretch of the Lower Himalayan Range. In rainshadows beyond the high mountains, annual precipitation drops as low as 160 mm (6 in).
Seasons
The year is divided into a wet season from June to September—as summer warmth over Inner Asia creates a low-pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean—and a dry season from October to June as cold temperatures in the vast interior create a high-pressure zone causing dry air to flow outward. April and May are months of intense water stress when cumulative effects of the long dry season are exacerbated by temperatures rising over 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropical climate belt. Seasonal drought further intensifies in the
The summer monsoon may be preceded by a buildup of thunderstorm activity that provides water for rice seedbeds. Sustained rain on average arrives in mid-June as rising temperatures over Inner Asia creates a low-pressure zone that draws in moist air from the Indian Ocean, but this can vary up to a month. Significant failure of monsoon rains historically meant drought and famine while above-normal rains still cause flooding and landslides with losses in human lives, farmland and buildings.
The monsoon also complicates transportation with roads and trails washing out while unpaved roads and airstrips may become unusable and cloud cover reduces safety margins for aviation. Rains diminish in September and generally end by mid-October, ushering in generally cool, clear, and dry weather, as well as the most relaxed and jovial period in Nepal. By this time, the harvest is completed and people are in a festive mood. The two largest and most important Hindu festivals—Dashain and Tihar (Dipawali)—arrive during this period, about one month apart. The post-monsoon season lasts until about December.
After the post-monsoon comes the winter monsoon, a strong northeasterly flow marked by occasional, short rainfalls in the lowlands and plains and snowfalls in the high-altitude areas. In this season the Himalayas function as a barrier to cold air masses from Inner Asia, so southern Nepal and northern India have warmer winters than would otherwise be the case. April and May are dry and hot, especially below 1,200 meters (4,000 ft) where afternoon temperatures may exceed 40 °C (104 °F).
Environment
The dramatic changes in elevation along this transect result in a variety of
This corresponds to the
Subtropical forests dominate the lower elevations of the Hill region. They form a mosaic running east–west across Nepal, with Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests between 500 and 1,000 meters (1,600 and 3,300 ft) and Himalayan subtropical pine forests between 1,000 and 2,000 meters (3,300 and 6,600 ft). At higher elevations, to 3,000 meters (10,000 ft), are found temperate broadleaf forests: eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests to the east of the Gandaki River and western Himalayan broadleaf forests to the west.
The native forests of the Mountain region change from east to west as precipitation decreases. They can be broadly classified by their relation to the Gandaki River. From 3,000 to 4,000 meters (10,000 to 13,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. To 5,500 meters (18,000 ft) are the eastern and western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows.
Environmental issues
- Natural hazards
- Environment - current issues
- Deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions
- Environment - international agreements
-
- Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
- Signed, but not ratified: Marine Life Conservation
- Existing and proposed dams, barrages and canals for flood control, irrigation and hydroelectric generation
River systems
Nepal has three categories of rivers. The largest systems -— from east to west the
The Koshi is also called
The
The
Second category rivers rise in the Middle Hills and Lower Himalayan Range, from east to west the
Third category rivers rise in the outermost
None of these river systems supports significant commercial navigation. Instead, deep gorges create obstacles to establishing transport and communication networks and de-fragmenting the economy. Foot-trails are still the primary transportation routes in many hill districts.
River management
Rivers in all three categories are capable of causing serious floods. Koshi River in the first category caused a major flood in August 2008 in Bihar state, India after breaking through a poorly maintained embankment just inside Nepal. The West Rapti in the second category is called "Gorakhpur's Sorrow" for its history of urban flooding. Third category Terai rivers are associated with flash floods.[13]
Since uplift and erosion are more or less in equilibrium in the Himalaya, at least where the climate is humid,
Large reservoirs in the Middle Hills may be able to capture peak flows and mitigate downstream flooding, to store surplus monsoon flows for dry season irrigation and to generate electricity. Water for irrigation is especially compelling because the Indian Terai is suspected to have entered a food bubble where dry season crops are dependent on water from tube wells that in the aggregate are unsustainably "mining" groundwater. [17]
Depletion of aquifers without building upstream dams as a sustainable alternative water source could precipitate a
As Nepal builds barrages to divert more water for irrigation during the dry season preceding the summer monsoon, there is less for downstream users in Bangladesh and India's Bihar and Uttar Pradesh states. The best solution could be building large upstream reservoirs, to capture and store surplus flows during the summer monsoon as well as providing flood control benefits to Bangladesh and India. Then water-sharing agreements could allocate a portion of the stored water to be left to flow into India during the following dry season.
Nevertheless, building dams in Nepal is controversial for several reasons. First, the region is seismically active. Dam failures caused by earthquakes could cause tremendous death and destruction downstream, particularly on the densely populated Gangetic Plain.[21] Second, global warming has led to the formation of glacial lakes dammed by unstable moraines. Sudden failures of these moraines can cause floods with cascading failures of manmade structures downstream.[22]
Third, sedimentation rates in the Himalaya are extremely high, leading to rapid loss of storage capacity as sediments accumulate behind dams.[23] Fourth, there are complicated questions of cross-border equity in how India and Nepal would share costs and benefits that have proven difficult to resolve in the context of frequent acrimony between the two countries.[20]
Area
- Total: 147,516 km2 (56,956 sq mi)
- Land: 143,181 km2 (55,282 sq mi)
- Water: 4,000 km2 (1,544 sq mi)
- Coastline
- 0 km (landlocked)
- Elevation extremes
-
- Lowest point: jhapa district59 m
- Highest point: Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) 8,848 m
- Lowest point:
Resources and land use
- Natural resources
- Quartz, water, timber, hydropower, scenic beauty, small deposits of lignite, copper, cobalt, iron ore
- Land use
-
- Arable land: 16.0%
- Permanent crops: 0.8%
- Other: 83.2% (2001)
- Irrigated land
- 11,680 km² (2003) Nearly 50% of arable land
- Total renewable water resources
- 210.2 km3 (2011)
Land cover
ICIMOD’s first and most complete national land cover[24] database of Nepal prepared using public domain Landsat TM data of 2010 shows that show that forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538 km2 with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country. Most of this forest cover is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200 km2 or 14.4% of the geographical area.
Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8267 km2 (5.62%). Agriculture area is significant extending over 43,910 km2 (29.83%). As would be expected, the high mountain area is largely covered by snow and glaciers and barren land.
The Hill region constitutes the largest portion of Nepal, covering 29.5% of the geographical area, and has a large area (19,783 km2) of cultivated or managed lands, natural and semi natural vegetation (22,621 km2) and artificial surfaces (200 km2). The Tarai region has more cultivated or managed land (14,104 km2) and comparatively less natural and semi natural vegetation (4280 km2). The Tarai has only 267 km2 of natural water bodies. The High mountain region has 12,062 km2 of natural water bodies, snow/glaciers and 13,105 km2 barren areas.
Forests
25.4% of Nepal's land area, or about 36,360 km2 (14,039 sq mi) is covered with forest according to
According to ICIMOD figures from 2010, forest is the dominant form of land cover in Nepal covering 57,538 km2 with a contribution of 39.09% to the total geographical area of the country.[26] Most of this forest cover is broadleaved closed and open forest, which covers 21,200 km2 or 14.4% of the geographical area. Needleleaved open forest is the least common of the forest areas covering 8,267 km2 (5.62%). At national level 64.8% area is covered by core forests of > 500 ha size and 23.8% forests belong to patch and edge category forests. The patch forest constituted 748 km2 at national level, out of which 494 km2 of patch forests are present in hill regions. Middle mountains, Siwaliks and Terai regions have more than 70% of the forest area under core forest category > 500 ha size. The edge forests constituted around 30% of forest area of High Mountain and Hill regions.[26] Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) which was conducted between 2010 and 2014 by the Ministry of Forest and Soil conservation with the financial and technical help of the Government of Finland shows that 40.36% of the land of Nepal is forested. 4.40% of the land has shrubs and bushes.
Deforestation is driven by multiple processes.[27] Virtually throughout the nation, over-harvest of firewood remains problematic. Despite the availability of liquefied petroleum gas in towns and cities, firewood is sold more at energy-competitive prices because cutting and selling it is a fallback when better employment opportunities aren't forthcoming. Firewood still supplies 80% of Nepal's energy for heating and cooking. Harvesting construction timber and lopping branches for fodder for cattle and other farm animals are also deforestation/degradation drivers in all geographic zones.
Illegal logging is a problem in the Siwaliks, with sawlogs smuggled into India.[28] Clearing for resettlement and agriculture expansion also causes deforestation as does urban expansion, building infrastructure such as schools, hospitals, electric transmission lines, water tanks, police and army barracks, temples and picnic areas.
In the Middle Hills road construction, reservoirs, transmission lines and extractive manufacturing such as cement factories cause deforestation. In the mountains building hotels, monasteries and trekking trails cause deforestation while timber-smuggling into the Tibet Autonomous Region and over-grazing cause degradation.
Boundaries
Border crossings with India
While India and Nepal have an open border with no restrictions on movement of their citizens on either side, there are 23 checkpoints for trade purposes. These are listed in clockwise order, east to west. The six in italics are also used for entry/exit by third country nationals.[29]
Border crossings with China
Crossing Name[30] (Other Name) |
Nepali Jurisdiction | Chinese Jurisdiction | Status | Crossing Location |
Border elevation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Burang–Yari (Xieerwa[31]) |
Hilsa, Humla District | Burang County
|
Active | 30°09′12″N 81°20′00″E / 30.15333°N 81.33333°E | 3,640 m (11,900 ft) |
Kora La )
|
Lo Manthang, Mustang District
|
Zhongba County | Planned | 29°19′24″N 83°59′09″E / 29.32333°N 83.98583°E | 4,620 m (15,200 ft) |
Gyirong–Rasuwa | Rasuwa Gadhi, Rasuwa District
|
Gyirong, Gyirong County
|
Active | 28°16′45″N 85°22′43″E / 28.27917°N 85.37861°E | 1,850 m (6,100 ft) |
Zhangmu–Kodari | Sindhupalchok District
|
Zhangmu, Nyalam County | Active[32] | 27°58′24″N 85°57′50″E / 27.97333°N 85.96389°E | 1,760 m (5,800 ft) |
Chentang–Kimathanka | Kimathanka, Sankhuwasabha District | Chentang, Dinggyê County
|
Planned | 27°51′30″N 87°25′30″E / 27.85833°N 87.42500°E | 2,248 m (7,400 ft) |
Ri'og–Olangchung Gola ( Tipta La )
|
Olangchung Gola, Taplejung District | Ri'og, Dinggyê County | Planned | 27°49′00″N 87°44′00″E / 27.81667°N 87.73333°E | 5,095 m (16,700 ft) |
See also
References
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- ^ "Nepal's holy Bagmati River choked with black sewage, trash". Associated Press. 17 August 2022.
- ^ "One more report ranks Nepal among most polluted countries in the world".
- ^ "Accra, Ghana".
- ^ "Averting an air pollution disaster in South Asia". 21 April 2023.
- ^ "Trash and Overcrowding at the Top of the World".
- ^ "The very air we breathe | UNICEF Nepal".
- ^ Dahal[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Peaks of Nepal". Travel Guide. Himalayan Echo Trek and Travel. Archived from the original on 7 June 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2014.
- ^ Graafen, Rainer; Seeber, Christian (June 1992). Important Trade Routes in Nepal and Their Importance to the Settlement Process (PDF). Vol. 130.
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- ^ Mallapaty, Smriti (12 April 2019). "Nepali scientists record country's first tornado: The team confirmed the rare event using satellite images, social-media posts and a visit to the affected area". Nature News. Spring Nature Publishing.
- ^ Aryal, Ravi Sharma; Rajkarnikar, Gautam (2011). Water Resources of Nepal in the Context of Climate Change (PDF). Kathmandu: Government of Nepal, Water and Energy Commission Secretariat. p. vii. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ Hack, John T. (1960). "Interpretation of Erosional Topography in Humid Temperate Regions" (PDF). American Journal of Science. 258-A: 80–97. Retrieved 10 December 2013.
- ^ Devkota, Lochan; Crosato, Alessandra; Giri, Sanjay (2012). "Effect of the barrage and embankments on flooding and channel avulsion, case study Koshi River, Nepal". Rural Infrastructure. 3 (3): 124–132. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ Thakur, Atul Kumar (7 May 2009). "Floods of Mithila Region: Raising Questions on Survival". Standpoint. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
- ^ Brown, Lester R. (29 November 2013). "India's dangerous 'food bubble'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 18 December 2013. Retrieved 10 December 2013. Alt URL
- ^ The United Nations. World Food Programme (2009). Food Security Atlas of Rural Bihar (PDF). New Delhi: Institute for Human Development. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ Kennedy, Kristian A. (17 May 2010). "The Naxalite Insurgency in India". Geopolitical Monitor. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ a b Malhotra, Pia (July 2010). "Water Issues between Nepal, India & Bangladesh, a Review of Literature" (PDF). IPCS Special Report No. 95. New Delhi: Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies: 11. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ Thapa, A.B. (January 2010). "Revision of the West Seti Dam Design in Nepal". Hydro Nepal (6). Kathmandu. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ ICIMOD (2011). "Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in Nepal" (PDF). Kathmandu: International Center for Integrated Mountain Development. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
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Choden, Sonam (2009). "Sediment Transport Studies in Punatsangchu River, Bhutan". Lund, Sweden: Lund University, Water Resources Engineering. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
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- ^ Kathmandu Forestry College (2013). Chitwan-Annapurna Landscape Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation (PDF). Kathmandu: World Wildlife Fund Nepal, Hariyo Ban Program. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ Khadka, Navin Singh (28 September 2010). "Nepal's forests 'being stripped by Indian timber demand'". London: British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
- ^ "Nepal-India Open Border: Prospects, Problems and Challenges". Nepal Democracy. Archived from the original on 18 October 2005. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
- ^ a b "中华人民共和国政府和尼泊尔政府关于边境口岸及其管理制度的协定" [China-Nepal Agreement on Port of Entry] (in Chinese). Chinese Embassy in Nepal. 14 January 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
- ^ "News from China" (PDF). Chinese Embassy in India. Vol. XXVIII, no. 7. July 2016. Retrieved 15 February 2017.
- ^ "Kodari Checkpoint To Open Today". The Spotlight Online. 29 May 2019. Retrieved 28 June 2019.
External links
- This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Nepal and Bhutan : country studies. Federal Research Division.
- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook (2024 ed.).
- Atlas of Nepal
- Nepal Encyclopedia Geopolitical category Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- Brief and Concise Geography of Nepal