History of the Philippines (1565–1898)
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The
The first documented European contact with the Philippines was made in 1521 by Ferdinand Magellan in his circumnavigation expedition,[2] during which he was killed in the Battle of Mactan. Forty-four years later, a Spanish expedition led by Miguel López de Legazpi left modern Mexico and began the Spanish conquest of the Philippines. Legazpi's expedition arrived in the Philippines in 1565, during the reign of Philip II of Spain, whose name has remained attached to the country.
The Spanish colonial period ended with the defeat of Spain by the United States in the Spanish–American War, which marked the beginning of the American colonial era of Philippine history.
Spanish colonization
Background
The
Conquest under Philip II
Philip II, whose name has remained attached to the islands, ordered and oversaw the conquest and colonization of the Philippines. On November 19 or 20, 1564, a Spanish expedition of a mere 500 men led by Miguel López de Legazpi departed Barra de Navidad (modern Mexican state of Jalisco) in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, arriving off Cebu on February 13, 1565, conquering it despite Cebuano opposition.[7]: 77 [8][9]: 20–23 Approximately 200-400 of these men were Tlaxcallan soldiers, having allied themselves with Spain during the Spanish conquest of Mexico.[10] Some of the Tlaxcallans settled permanently on the islands, and numerous Nahuatl words were absorbed into the Filipino languages.[11] More than 15,000 soldiers arrived from New Spain as new migrants during the 17th century, far outnumbering civilian arrivals. Most of these soldiers were criminals and young boys rather than men of character.[a][12] Hardship for the colonizing soldiers contributed to looting and enslavement, despite the entreaties of representatives of the church who accompanied them. In 1568, the Spanish Crown permitted the establishment of the encomienda system that it was abolishing in the New World, effectively legalizing a more oppressive conquest. Although slavery had been abolished in the Spanish Empire, it took around a century for it to be fully abolished in the Philippines due to the pre-colonial alipin system of slavery already existing in the islands.[13][14]
Due to conflict with the Portuguese, who blockaded Cebu in 1568, and persistent supply shortages,[15] in 1569 Legazpi transferred to Panay and founded a second settlement on the bank of the Panay River. In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson, Juan de Salcedo, who had arrived from Mexico in 1567, to Mindoro to punish the Muslim Moro pirates who had been plundering Panay villages. Salcedo also destroyed forts on the islands of Ilin and Lubang, respectively south and northwest of Mindoro.[7]: 79
In 1570, Martín de Goiti, having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon, conquered Maynila. Legazpi followed with a larger fleet comprising both Spanish and a majority Visayan force,[7]: 79-80 taking a month to bring these forces to bear due to slow speed of local ships.[16] This large force caused the surrender of neighboring Tondo. An attempt by some local leaders, known as the Tondo Conspiracy, to defeat the Spanish was repelled. Legazpi renamed Maynila Nueva Castilla, and declared it the capital of the Philippines,[7]: 80 and thus of the rest of the Spanish East Indies,[17] which also encompassed Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.[18][19] Legazpi became the country's first governor-general.
Though the fledgling Legazpi-led administration was initially small and vulnerable to elimination by Portuguese and
In 1573, Japan expanded its trade in northern Luzon.[21][failed verification] In 1580, the Japanese lord Tay Fusa established the independent wokou Tay Fusa state in non-colonial Cagayan.[22] When the Spanish arrived in the area, they subjugated the settlement, resulting in the 1582 Cagayan battles.[23] With time, Cebu's importance fell as power shifted north to Luzon.[citation needed]In the late 16th century the population of Manila grew even as the population of Spanish settlements in the Visayas decreased.[24]
In time, the Spanish successfully took over the different local states
Spanish rule brought most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration.
Some Japanese ships visited the Philippines in the 1570s in order to export Japanese
On February 8, 1597, Philip II, near the end of his 42-year reign, issued a Royal Cedula instructing Francisco de Tello de Guzmán, then Governor-General of the Philippines to fulfill the laws of tributes and to provide for restitution of ill-gotten taxes taken from indigenous Filipinos. The decree was published in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on September 13, just forty days after the publication of the decree, but his death was not known in the Philippines until middle of 1599, by which time a referendum by which indigenous Filipinos would acknowledge Spanish rule was underway. With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.[44]
During the initial period of colonialization, Manila was settled by 1,200 Spanish families.[45] In Cebu City, at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers from New Spain, beginning Mexican settlement in the Philippines.[46] Spanish forces included soldiers from elsewhere in New Spain.[47][48][49][50][51][52] However, according to genetic studies, the Philippines remained largely unaffected by admixture with Europeans.[53] Latin Americans outnumbered Europeans, the Spanish in general, and the majority of Filipinos are native Austronesians.[54] Spain maintained in towns and cities.[55] At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present at Ermita[56] and at Cavite,[57] where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted from Peru, were also sent to settle Zamboanga City in Mindanao, to wage war upon Muslim defenders.[58]
There were also communities of Spanish-
The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.[64] War against the Dutch from the west, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[65] Moros from western Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago also raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Settlers had to fight off the Chinese pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in 1573).
Dutch attacks
There were three naval actions fought between Dutch corsairs and Spanish forces in 1610, 1617 and 1624, known as the First, Second and Third Battles of Playa Honda. The second battle is the most famous and celebrated of the three, with nearly even forces (10 ships vs 10 ships), resulting in the Dutch losing their flagship and retreating. Only the third battle of 1624 resulted in a Dutch naval victory.
In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manila was fought between the forces of Spain and the Dutch Republic, as part of the Eighty Years' War. Although the Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and a galley with crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines.
On June 6, 1647, Dutch vessels were sighted near Mariveles Island. In spite of the preparations, the Spanish had only one galleon (the San Diego) and two galleys ready to engage the enemy. The Dutch had twelve major vessels.
On June 12, the armada attacked the Spanish port of Cavite. The battle lasted eight hours, and the Spanish believed they had done much damage to the enemy flagship and the other vessels. The Spanish ships were not badly damaged and casualties were low. However, nearly every roof in the Spanish settlement was damaged by cannon fire, which particularly concentrated on the cathedral. On June 19, the armada was split, with six ships sailing for the shipyard of Mindoro and the other six remaining in Manila Bay. The Dutch next attacked Pampanga, where they captured the fortified monastery, taking prisoners and executing almost 200 Filipino defenders. The governor ordered solemn funeral rites for the dead and payments to their widows and orphans.[66][67][68]
There was an expedition the following year that arrived in Jolo in July. The Dutch had formed an alliance with an anti-Spanish king, Salicala. The Spanish garrison on the island was small, but survived a Dutch bombardment. The Dutch finally withdrew, and the Spanish made peace with the Joloans, and then also withdrew.[66][67][68]
There was also an unsuccessful attack on Zamboanga in 1648. That year the Dutch promised the natives of Mindanao that they would return in 1649 with aid in support of a revolt against the Spanish. Several revolts did break out, the most serious being in the village of Lindáo. There most of the Spaniards were killed, and the survivors were forced to flee in a small river boat to Butuán. However, Dutch aid did not materialize or have objects to provide them. The authorities from Manila issued a general pardon, and many of the Filipinos in the mountains surrendered.[66][67][68]
The demands of these wars has been regarded as a potential cause of population decline.[69]
British occupation of Manila
In August 1759, Charles III ascended the Spanish throne. At the time, Great Britain and France were at war, in what was later called the Seven Years' War.
British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764, however they were unable to extend their conquest outside of Manila as the Filipinos stayed loyal to the remaining Spanish community outside Manila.[9]: 81–83 Spanish colonial forces kept the British confined to Manila. Catholic Archbishop Manuel Rojo, who had been captured by the British, executed a document of surrender on October 30, 1762, giving the British confidence in eventual victory.[70][71]
The surrender by Archbishop Rojo was rejected as illegal by Don Simón de Anda y Salazar, who claimed the title of Governor-General under the statutes of the Council of the Indies. He led Spanish-Filipino forces that kept the British confined to Manila and sabotaged or crushed British-fomented revolts, such as the revolt by Diego Silang. Anda intercepted and redirected the Manila galleon trade to prevent further captures by the British. The failure of the British to consolidate their position led to troop desertions and a breakdown of command unity which left the British forces paralysed and in an increasingly precarious position.[72]
The Seven Years' War was ended by the Peace of Paris signed on February 10, 1763. At the time of signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that Manila was under British occupation and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown.[73]
The opening of the Philippines to world trade
As industrialization spread throughout Europe and North America in the 19th century, demands for raw materials increased. Although the Philippines had been prohibited from trading with nations other than Spain, the demand led Spain, under Governor-General José Basco, to open the ports to international trade as both as a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods.
Following the opening of Philippine ports to world trade in 1834,[74] shifts started occurring within Filipino society.[75][76] The decline of the Manila Galleon trade contributed to shifts in the domestic economy. Communal land became privatized to meet international demand for agricultural products, which led to the formal opening of the ports of Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu to international trade.[77]
Rise of Filipino nationalism
The development of the Philippines as a source of raw materials and as a market for European manufactures created much local wealth. Many Filipinos prospered. Everyday Filipinos also benefited from the new economy with the rapid increase in demand for labor and availability of business opportunities. Some Europeans immigrated to the Philippines to join the wealth wagon, among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch of today's
In the mid-19th century, the
The Spanish American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity.[78][79] This was compounded by a Mexican of Filipino descent, Isidoro Montes de Oca, becoming captain-general to the revolutionary leader Vicente Guerrero during the Mexican War of Independence.[80][81][82]
The Insulares had become increasingly Filipino and called themselves Los hijos del país (lit. "sons of the country"). Among the early proponents of Filipino nationalism were the Insulares Padre
The tension between the Insulares and Peninsulares erupted into the failed revolts of Novales and the Cavite mutiny of 1872, which resulted in the deportation of prominent Filipino nationalists to the Marianas and Europe, who would continue the fight for liberty through the Propaganda Movement. The Cavite Mutiny implicated the priests Mariano Gomez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora (see Gomburza), whose executions would influence the subversive activities of the next generation of Filipino nationalists, among them José Rizal, who then dedicated his novel El filibusterismo to these priests.
A national public school system was introduced in 1863.[83][84][85]
Rise of Spanish liberalism
After the Liberals won the
Ilustrados, Rizal, and the Katipunan
Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences.
The mass deportation of nationalists to the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a Filipino expatriate community of reformers in Europe. The community grew with the next generation of
Among the reformers was José Rizal, who wrote two novels while in Europe. His novels were considered[by whom?] the most influential of the Illustrados' writings, causing further unrest in the islands, particularly the founding of the Katipunan. A rivalry developed between himself and Marcelo Hilario del Pilar for the leadership of La Solidaridad and the reform movement in Europe. Majority of the expatriates supported the leadership of del Pilar.[citation needed]
Rizal then returned to the Philippines to organize La Liga Filipina and bring the reform movement to Philippine soil. He was arrested just a few days after founding the league.[citation needed] Rizal was eventually executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[91] As attempts at reform met with resistance,[92] in 1892, Radical members of the La Liga Filipina, which included Andrés Bonifacio and Deodato Arellano, founded the Kataastaasan Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), called simply the Katipunan, which had the objective of the Philippines seceding from the Spanish Empire.
Philippine Revolution
By 1896, the Katipunan had a membership by the thousands. That same year, the existence of the Katipunan was discovered by the colonial authorities. In late August, Katipuneros gathered in
Many of the educated ilustrado class such as Antonio Luna and Apolinario Mabini did not initially favor an armed revolution. José Rizal himself, whom the rebels took inspiration from and had consulted beforehand, disapproved of a premature revolution. He was arrested, tried and executed for treason, sedition and conspiracy on December 30, 1896. Before his arrest he had issued a statement disavowing the revolution, but in his farewell poem Mi último adiós he wrote that dying in battle for the sake of one's country was just as patriotic as his own impending death.[99][page needed]
While the revolution spread throughout the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros declared the existence of an insurgent government in October regardless of Bonifacio's Katipunan,
By December 1897, the revolution had resulted in a stalemate between the colonial government and rebels. Pedro Paterno mediated between the two sides for the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. The conditions of the armistice included the self-exile of Aguinaldo and his officers in exchange for $MXN 800,000 (about $US 14,400,000 today[b]) to be paid by the colonial government.[citation needed] Aguinaldo then sailed to Hong Kong to self exile.[107]
Spanish–American War
On April 25, 1898, the Spanish–American War began. On May 1, 1898, in the Battle of Manila Bay, the Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy, led by Commodore George Dewey aboard USS Olympia, decisively defeated the Spanish naval forces in the Philippines. With the loss of its naval forces and of control of Manila Bay, Spain lost the ability to defend Manila and therefore the Philippines.
On May 19, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines aboard a U.S. Navy ship, and on May 24, took command of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberated much of the country from the Spanish.[citation needed] On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence declaring independence from Spain.[107] Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila, as had American forces.
In August 1898, the Spanish governor-general covertly agreed with American commanders to surrender Manila to the Americans following a mock battle.[citation needed] On August 13, 1898, during the Battle of Manila, Americans took control of the city.[citation needed] In December 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Spanish–American War and selling the Philippines to the United States for $20 million. With this treaty, Spanish rule in the Philippines formally ended.[108][109]
On January 23, 1899, Aguinaldo established the First Philippine Republic in Malolos.[110]
As it became increasingly clear that the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, the Philippine–American War broke out[111] on February 4, 1899, with the Battle of Manila.
See also
- Antonio de Morga
- Philippine revolts against Spain
- Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas
- Luis Pérez Dasmariñas
- Santiago de Vera
- Pedro Chirino
- Lakandula
- Rajah Sulayman
- Philippine Revolutionary Army
- Ferdinand Blumentritt
- List of sovereign state leaders in the Philippines
Notes
- Fernando de Silva and in 1650 by Diego Fajardo Chacón.[12]
- ^ The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about 50 US cents, equivalent to about $18.31 today.[106] The peso fuerte and the Mexican dollar were interchangeable at par.
References
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- ISBN 9789625934709.
- ^ Scott 1985, p. 51.
- ^ Williams 2009, p. 14
- ^ Williams 2009, pp. 13–33
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 4.
- ^ ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9.
- ^ Education, United States. Office of (1961). Bulletin. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 7.
- ^ ISBN 9780874175905. Archived from the originalon March 26, 2022. Retrieved February 19, 2021.
- ^ "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". LATINO BOOK REVIEW. Retrieved March 17, 2024.
- ^ "When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines". LATINO BOOK REVIEW. Retrieved April 1, 2024.
- ^ JSTOR 44015364.)
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: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Newson 2009, pp. 5–7.
- ISBN 9781107477841.
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 61.
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 20.
- ^ Fernando A. Santiago Jr. (2006). "Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898". Malay. 19 (2): 70–87. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
- ^ Manuel L. Quezon III (June 12, 2017). "The Philippines Isn't What It Used to Be". SPOT.PH. Retrieved October 24, 2020.
- ^ Andrade, Tonio (2005). "La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan". How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century. Columbia University Press.
- ^ Barrows, David P. "A History of the Philippines". Gutenberg.org. Retrieved March 8, 2022.
- ^ "조선왕조실록". Sillok.history.go.kr. Retrieved February 23, 2019.
- ISBN 9780595192618. Retrieved February 23, 2019 – via Google Books.
- ^ Borao, José Eugenio (2005), p.2
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 120.
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To pursue their mission of conquest, the Spaniards dealt individually with each settlement or village and with each province or island until the entire Philippine archipelago was brought under imperial control. They saw to it that the people remained divided or compartmentalized and with the minimum of contact or communication. The Spaniards adopted the policy of divide et impera (divide and conquer).
- ^ Abinales & Amoroso 2005, pp. 53, 68
- ISBN 978-0-85345-394-9. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
- ^ Russell, S.D. (1999) "Christianity in the Philippines". Retrieved April 2, 2013.[full citation needed]
- ^ "The City of God: Churches, Convents and Monasteries". Discovering Philippines. Retrieved on July 6, 2011.[full citation needed]
- ^ Javellana, Rene, S.J. (1997). "Fortress of Empire".
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: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[full citation needed] - ^ Lahmeyer, Jan (1996). "The Philippines: historical demographic data of the whole country". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved July 19, 2003.
- ^ "Censos de Cúba, Puerto Rico, Filipinas y España. Estudio de su relación". Voz de Galicia. 1898. Retrieved December 12, 2010.[verification needed]
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- ^ Gutierrez, Pedro Luengo. "Dissolution of Manila-Mexico Architectural Connections between 1784 and 1810". Transpacific Exchanges: 62–63.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Retrieved January 29, 2021.
Because local resources did not yield enough money to maintain the colonial administration, the government was constantly running a deficit and had to be supported with an annual subsidy from the Spanish government in Mexico, the situado.
- ^ Newson 2009, pp. 7–8.
- ISBN 9781409482420.
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 8.
- ISBN 978-0-8047-1256-9.
- ^ Tracy 1995, pp. 12, 55[citation not found]
- ^ Schottenhammer 2008, p. 151
- ^ Yu-Jose 1999, p. https://books.google.com/books?id=kbWv-pZy5H0C&pg=PA1 1
- ^ Villarroel 2009, pp. 93–133
- ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 179.
Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ("todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles"). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.
- ^ "Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines". philippine-history.org. 2005.
- ISBN 9781316480120.
In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms "all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence.~CSIC riel 208 leg.14
- . Retrieved August 19, 2020.
- ISBN 9781316480120.
The military organization of Manila might have depended to some degree on non-European groups, but colonial authorities measured a successful imperial policy of defense on the amount of European and American recruits that could be accounted for in the military forces.~CSIC ser. Consultas riel 301 leg.8 (1794)
- ^ "Filipino-Mexican-Central-and-South American Connection, Tales of Two Sisters: Manila and Mexico". June 21, 1997. Retrieved January 1, 2021.
Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese."
- ^ (Page 10) Pérez, Marilola (2015). Cavite Chabacano Philippine Creole Spanish: Description and Typology (PDF) (PhD). University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021.
The galleon activities also attracted a great number of Mexican men that arrived from the Mexican Pacific coast as ships' crewmembers (Grant 2009: 230). Mexicans were administrators, priests and soldiers (guachinangos or hombres de pueblo) (Bernal 1964: 188) many though, integrated into the peasant society, even becoming tulisanes 'bandits' who in the late 18th century "infested" Cavite and led peasant revolts (Medina 2002: 66). Meanwhile, in the Spanish garrisons, Spanish was used among administrators and priests. Nonetheless, there is not enough historical information on the social role of these men. In fact some of the few references point to a quick integration into the local society: "los hombres del pueblo, los soldados y marinos, anónimos, olvidados, absorbidos en su totalidad por la población Filipina." (Bernal 1964: 188). In addition to the Manila-Acapulco galleon, a complex commercial maritime system circulated European and Asian commodities including slaves. During the 17th century, Portuguese vessels traded with the ports of Manila and Cavite, even after the prohibition of 1644 (Seijas 2008: 21). Crucially, the commercial activities included the smuggling and trade of slaves: "from the Moluccas, and Malacca, and India… with the monsoon winds" carrying "clove spice, cinnamon, and pepper and black slaves, and Kafir [slaves]" (Antonio de Morga cf Seijas 2008: 21)." Though there is no data on the numbers of slaves in Cavite, the numbers in Manila suggest a significant fraction of the population had been brought in as slaves by the Portuguese vessels. By 1621, slaves in Manila numbered 1,970 out of a population of 6,110. This influx of slaves continued until late in the 17th century; according to contemporary cargo records in 1690, 200 slaves departed from Malacca to Manila (Seijas 2008: 21). Different ethnicities were favored for different labor; Africans were brought to work on the agricultural production, and skilled slaves from India served as caulkers and carpenters.
- ^ Abinales & Amoroso 2005, p. 98
- ^ https://www.pnas.org/content/118/13/e2026132118 [bare URL]
- S2CID 232323746.
- ISBN 978-1-107-06312-9.
- ^ "Living in the Philippines: Living, Retiring, Travelling and Doing Business". Archived from the original on December 6, 2016. Retrieved April 22, 2017.
- ^ Barrows, David (2014). "A History of the Philippines". Guttenburg Free Online E-books. 1: 229.
Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the King," made up very largely of Mexican soldiers. He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army.
- ^ "SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE" (Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them from Peru, as he made his voyage to Acapulco from that kingdom."
- ^ Quinze Ans de Voyage Autor de Monde Vol. II ( 1840) Archived October 9, 2014, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 25, 2014 from Institute for Research of Iloilo Official Website
- ^ "The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves Boquet Page 262
- ISBN 978-971-91030-9-7.
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The early modern revival of the Reconquista in the Philippines had a profound effect on the islands, one that is still being felt today. As described above, the Spanish Reconquista served to unify Christians against a common Moro enemy, helping to bring together Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Basque peoples into a single political unit: Spain. In precolonial times, the Philippine islands were a divided and unspecified part of the Malay archipelago, one inhabited by dozens of ethnolinguistic groups, residing in countless independent villages, strewn across thousands of islands. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, a dramatic change had happened in the archipelago. A multiethnic community had come together to form the colonial beginnings of a someday nation: the Philippines. The powerful influence of Christian-Moro antagonisms on the formation of the early Philippines remains evident more than four hundred years later, as the Philippine national government continues to grapple with Moro separatists groups, even in 2013.
- ^ Dolan 1991, The Early Spanish Period.
- ^ a b c De Jesus, Luis & De Santa Theresa, Diego (1905). "Recollect Missions, 1646–1660". In Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander (eds.). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 36 of 55 (1649–1666). Translated by Henry B. Lathrop. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. pp. 126 ff.
- ^ a b c Fayol, Joseph (1905). "Affairs in Filipinas, 1644–47". In Blair, Emma Helen & Robertson, James Alexander (eds.). The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Vol. 35 of 55. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Company. p. 267.
- ^ a b c Maarten Gerritszoon Vries; Cornelis Janszoon Coen; Pieter Arend Leupe; Philipp Franz von Siebold (1858). Reize van Maarten Gerritsz: Vries in 1643 naar het noorden en oosten van Japan. The Hague: Instituut voor de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië.
- ^ Newson 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Tracy 1995, p. 54
- ^ (F.R.G.S.), John Foreman (1906). The Philippine Islands: A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago, Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule, with an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government. Unwin. pp. 89–90.
- ^ Fish 2003, p. 158
- ^ Tracy 1995, p. 109
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The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality.
- ^ Mercene, Floro L. (January 28, 2005). "Filipinos in Mexican history". ezilon infobase. Archived from the original on December 9, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2019.
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- ^ Nuguid, Nati. (1972). "The Cavite Mutiny". in Mary R. Tagle. 12 Events that Have Influenced Philippine History. [Manila]: National Media Production Center. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from StuartXchange Website.
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- ISBN 978-971-23-3934-9. Retrieved July 29, 2020.
- ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 166
- ^ Salazar, Zeus (1994). Agosto 29–30, 1896: Ang pagsalakay ni Bonifacio sa Maynila. Quezon City: Miranda Bookstore. p. 107.
- ISBN 9789715502788.
- ^ a b Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 175–176.[failed verification]
- ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 173.
- ^ Constantino 1975, p. 179
- ^ Quibuyen 2008
- ^ Constantino 1975, pp. 178–181
- ^ Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 166–167Guerrero & Schumacher 1998, pp. 175–176.[citation needed]
- ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 152
- ISBN 9789712350450.
- ^ Constantino 1975, p. 191
- ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 180–181.
- ^ Halstead, Murat (1898). "XII. The American Army in Manila". The Story of the Philippines and Our New Possessions. p. 126.
- ^ a b Abinales & Amoroso 2005, p. 112-113
- ISBN 9780722278932. Retrieved January 29, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-87586-454-9. Retrieved January 29, 2021.
- ISBN 978-962-209-201-3. Retrieved January 15, 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-7006-1225-3.
Sources
- Agoncillo, Teodoro A. (1990), History of the Filipino People (Eighth ed.), University of the Philippines, ISBN 971-8711-06-6.
- Abinales, P. N.; Amoroso, Donna J. (2005), State and Society in the Philippines, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-7425-1024-1.
- ISBN 971-8958-00-2.
- Cummins, Joseph (2006), "11. A Legend of Freedom: Francisco Dagohoy and the Rebels of Bohol", History's great untold stories: obscure events of lasting importance, Murdoch Books, pp. 132–138, ISBN 978-1-74045-808-5.
- Dolan, Ronald E. (Ed.). (1991). Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Retrieved December 20, 2009 from Country Studies US Website.
- Fish, Shirley (2003), When Britain ruled the Philippines, 1762-1764: the story of the 18th century British invasion of the Philippines during the Seven Years' War, 1stBooks Library, ISBN 978-1-4107-1069-7.
- Guerrero, Milagros; Schumacher, S.J., John (1998), Reform and Revolution, Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People, vol. 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, ISBN 962-258-228-1.
- Newson, Linda A. (April 16, 2009), Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-6197-1.
- Quibuyen, Floro C. (2008) [1999], A Nation Aborted: Rizal, American Hegemony, and Philippine nationalism (Revised ed.), Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press, ISBN 978-971-550-574-1.
- Schottenhammer, Angela (2008), The East Asian Mediterranean: Maritime Crossroads of Culture, Commerce and Human Migration, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-05809-4.
- Scott, William Henry (1985), Cracks in the parchment curtain and other essays in Philippine history, New Day Publishers, ISBN 978-971-10-0074-5.
- Spate, Oskar Hermann Khristian (2004), The Spanish Lake, Australian National University, ISBN 1-920942-16-5.
- Tracy, Nicholas (1995), Manila Ransomed: The British Assault on Manila in the Seven Years' War, University of Exeter Press, ISBN 978-0-85989-426-5.
- Villarroel, Fidel (2009), "Philip II and the "Philippine Referendum" of 1599", in Ramírez, Dámaso de Lario (ed.), Re-shaping the World: Philip II of Spain and His Time (illustrated ed.), Ateneo de Manila University Press, ISBN 978-971-550-556-7.
- Williams, Patrick (2009), "Philip II, the Philippines, and the Hispanic World", in Ramírez, Dámaso de Lario (ed.), Re-shaping the World: Philip II of Spain and His Time (illustrated ed.), Ateneo de Manila University Press, ISBN 978-971-550-556-7.
- Yu-Jose, Lydia N. (1999), Japan views the Philippines, 1900-1944, Ateneo de Manila University Press, ISBN 978-971-550-281-8.
- Zaide, Gregorio F. (1939), Philippine History and Civilization, Philippine Education Co..
- Zaide, Sonia M (2006), The Philippines: A Unique Nation, All-Nations Publishing Co Inc, Quezon City, ISBN 971-642-071-4.
External links
- Shamanism, Catholicism and Gender Relations in Colonial Philippines 1521–1685 – Google Books
- De las islas filipinas – a historical account written by a Spanish lawyer who lived in the Philippines during the 19th century (archived 23 November 2009)
- Timeline of Philippine History: Spanish colonization (archived 14 August 2009)