Peloponnese
Peloponnese
Πελοπόννησος | ||
---|---|---|
Administrative regions
| ||
Capital | Tripoli | |
Largest city | Patra | |
Area | ||
• Total | 21,549.6 km2 (8,320.3 sq mi) | |
Population (2011) | ||
• Total | 1,155,019 | |
• Density | 54/km2 (140/sq mi) | |
Demonym | Peloponnesian | |
ISO 3166 code | GR-J |
The Peloponnese (
The peninsula is divided among three
Geography
The Peloponnese is a peninsula located at the southern tip of the mainland, 21,549.6 square kilometres (8,320.3 sq mi) in area, and constitutes the southernmost part of mainland Greece. It is connected to the mainland by the
The longest river is the
Two groups of islands lie off the Peloponnesian coast: the
Since antiquity, and continuing to the present day, the Peloponnese has been divided into seven major regions:
Climate
Peloponnese for the most part enjoys a hot-summer
Climate data for Patras Port (2008–2024) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 24.9 (76.8) |
25.6 (78.1) |
25.1 (77.2) |
32.0 (89.6) |
37.2 (99.0) |
38.9 (102.0) |
38.3 (100.9) |
38.1 (100.6) |
35.7 (96.3) |
30.6 (87.1) |
28.1 (82.6) |
26.8 (80.2) |
38.9 (102.0) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 14.1 (57.4) |
14.9 (58.8) |
16.2 (61.2) |
19.4 (66.9) |
23.0 (73.4) |
27.1 (80.8) |
30.2 (86.4) |
31.4 (88.5) |
27.4 (81.3) |
23.4 (74.1) |
19.8 (67.6) |
16.0 (60.8) |
21.9 (71.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.7 (53.1) |
12.4 (54.3) |
13.7 (56.7) |
16.7 (62.1) |
20.3 (68.5) |
24.3 (75.7) |
27.3 (81.1) |
28.3 (82.9) |
24.8 (76.6) |
20.7 (69.3) |
17.2 (63.0) |
13.6 (56.5) |
19.2 (66.6) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 9.3 (48.7) |
9.9 (49.8) |
11.1 (52.0) |
14.0 (57.2) |
17.6 (63.7) |
21.5 (70.7) |
24.3 (75.7) |
25.1 (77.2) |
22.2 (72.0) |
17.9 (64.2) |
14.6 (58.3) |
11.2 (52.2) |
16.6 (61.8) |
Record low °C (°F) | 1.2 (34.2) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
2.3 (36.1) |
8.2 (46.8) |
11.9 (53.4) |
15.0 (59.0) |
19.3 (66.7) |
20.1 (68.2) |
15.8 (60.4) |
9.2 (48.6) |
7.4 (45.3) |
3.0 (37.4) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 109.5 (4.31) |
67.9 (2.67) |
71.2 (2.80) |
36.9 (1.45) |
23.5 (0.93) |
16.5 (0.65) |
5.3 (0.21) |
7.0 (0.28) |
39.6 (1.56) |
89.2 (3.51) |
109.8 (4.32) |
115.2 (4.54) |
691.6 (27.23) |
Source 1: National Observatory of Athens Monthly Bulletins (Jan 2008 – Mar 2024)[4] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Patras N.O.A station[5] and World Meteorological Organization[6] |
Climate data for Monemvasia (2007–2024) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 22.4 (72.3) |
25.3 (77.5) |
25.8 (78.4) |
30.5 (86.9) |
35.3 (95.5) |
45.2 (113.4) |
42.7 (108.9) |
39.9 (103.8) |
38.3 (100.9) |
33.2 (91.8) |
31.4 (88.5) |
24.9 (76.8) |
45.2 (113.4) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 15.0 (59.0) |
15.6 (60.1) |
17.4 (63.3) |
20.5 (68.9) |
25.0 (77.0) |
29.5 (85.1) |
32.1 (89.8) |
32.0 (89.6) |
28.7 (83.7) |
23.9 (75.0) |
20.3 (68.5) |
16.7 (62.1) |
23.1 (73.5) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.7 (54.9) |
13.3 (55.9) |
14.7 (58.5) |
17.4 (63.3) |
21.5 (70.7) |
25.8 (78.4) |
28.6 (83.5) |
28.8 (83.8) |
25.6 (78.1) |
21.5 (70.7) |
18.1 (64.6) |
14.6 (58.3) |
20.2 (68.4) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 10.5 (50.9) |
10.9 (51.6) |
11.9 (53.4) |
14.3 (57.7) |
18.0 (64.4) |
22.2 (72.0) |
25.1 (77.2) |
25.6 (78.1) |
22.5 (72.5) |
19.1 (66.4) |
15.9 (60.6) |
12.5 (54.5) |
17.4 (63.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | 2.1 (35.8) |
1.6 (34.9) |
4.2 (39.6) |
9.1 (48.4) |
12.1 (53.8) |
15.8 (60.4) |
18.4 (65.1) |
20.5 (68.9) |
16.7 (62.1) |
12.5 (54.5) |
8.9 (48.0) |
4.7 (40.5) |
1.6 (34.9) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 107.8 (4.24) |
67.9 (2.67) |
37.2 (1.46) |
20.5 (0.81) |
8.2 (0.32) |
10.2 (0.40) |
2.6 (0.10) |
0.9 (0.04) |
26.0 (1.02) |
59.7 (2.35) |
95.8 (3.77) |
89.7 (3.53) |
526.5 (20.71) |
Source 1: National Observatory of Athens Monthly Bulletins (Apr 2007-Mar 2024)[7] | |||||||||||||
Source 2: Monemvasia N.O.A station[8] and World Meteorological Organization[9] |
Climate data for Sparta (2009–2023) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 23.5 (74.3) |
26.4 (79.5) |
27.2 (81.0) |
34.1 (93.4) |
40.7 (105.3) |
44.4 (111.9) |
44.2 (111.6) |
45.7 (114.3) |
40.3 (104.5) |
36.4 (97.5) |
30.8 (87.4) |
23.5 (74.3) |
45.7 (114.3) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 14.3 (57.7) |
15.9 (60.6) |
18.4 (65.1) |
22.8 (73.0) |
27.8 (82.0) |
32.5 (90.5) |
36.0 (96.8) |
35.9 (96.6) |
31.3 (88.3) |
25.3 (77.5) |
20.1 (68.2) |
15.9 (60.6) |
24.7 (76.4) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.7 (47.7) |
9.9 (49.8) |
12.0 (53.6) |
15.4 (59.7) |
20.0 (68.0) |
24.6 (76.3) |
27.7 (81.9) |
27.7 (81.9) |
23.8 (74.8) |
18.5 (65.3) |
13.9 (57.0) |
10.1 (50.2) |
17.7 (63.9) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | 3.0 (37.4) |
3.9 (39.0) |
5.6 (42.1) |
8.0 (46.4) |
12.2 (54.0) |
16.7 (62.1) |
19.5 (67.1) |
19.6 (67.3) |
16.4 (61.5) |
11.8 (53.2) |
7.8 (46.0) |
4.4 (39.9) |
10.7 (51.3) |
Record low °C (°F) | −5.3 (22.5) |
−4.2 (24.4) |
−4.6 (23.7) |
−0.7 (30.7) |
6.2 (43.2) |
9.4 (48.9) |
14.2 (57.6) |
13.1 (55.6) |
9.1 (48.4) |
1.5 (34.7) |
−1.7 (28.9) |
−5.2 (22.6) |
−5.3 (22.5) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 124.0 (4.88) |
81.4 (3.20) |
62.4 (2.46) |
33.1 (1.30) |
24.8 (0.98) |
35.3 (1.39) |
11.9 (0.47) |
19.0 (0.75) |
52.2 (2.06) |
61.5 (2.42) |
84.4 (3.32) |
93.8 (3.69) |
683.8 (26.92) |
Source: National Observatory of Athens (Feb 2009 – Oct 2023),[10][11] Sparta N.O.A station,[12] World Meteorological Organization[13] |
History
Mythology and early history
The peninsula has been inhabited since
The Mycenaean civilization, mainland Greece's (and Europe's) first major civilization, dominated the Peloponnese in the Bronze Age from the palaces of Mycenae, Pylos and Tiryns; among others. The Mycenaean civilization collapsed suddenly at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological research has found that many of its cities and palaces show signs of destruction. The subsequent period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, is marked by an absence of written records.
Classical antiquity
In 776 BC, the first Olympic Games were held at Olympia, in the western Peloponnese and this date is sometimes used to denote the beginning of the classical period of Greek antiquity. During classical antiquity, the Peloponnese was at the heart of the affairs of ancient Greece, possessed some of its most powerful city-states, and was the location of some of its bloodiest battles.
The major cities of
Along with the rest of Greece, the Peloponnese fell to the expanding
Middle Ages
Byzantine rule
After the partition of the Empire in 395, the Peloponnese became a part of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The devastation of Alaric's raid in 396–397 led to the construction of the Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth.[14] Through most of late antiquity, the peninsula retained its urbanized character: in the 6th century, Hierocles counted 26 cities in his Synecdemus. By the latter part of that century, however, building activity seems to have stopped virtually everywhere except Constantinople, Thessalonica, Corinth, and Athens. This has traditionally been attributed to calamities such as plague, earthquakes and Slavic invasions.[15] However, more recent analysis suggests that urban decline was closely linked with the collapse of long-distance and regional commercial networks that underpinned and supported late antique urbanism in Greece,[16] as well as with the generalized withdrawal of imperial troops and administration from the Balkans.[17]
Slavic invasion, settlement and decline
The scale of the Slavic invasion and settlement in the 7th and 8th centuries remains a matter of dispute, although it is nowadays considered much smaller than previously thought.[18] The Slavs did occupy most of the peninsula, as evidenced by the abundance of Slavic toponyms, but these toponyms accumulated over centuries rather than as a result of an initial "flood" of Slavic invasions, and many appear to have been mediated by speakers of Greek, or in mixed Slavic-Greek compounds.[15][19][20]
Fewer Slavic toponyms appear on the eastern coast, which remained in Byzantine hands and was included in the thema of Hellas, established by Justinian II c. 690.[21] While traditional historiography has dated the arrival of Slavs to southern Greece to the late 6th century, according to Florin Curta there is no evidence for a Slavic presence in the Peloponnese until after c. 700 AD,[22] when Slavs may have been allowed to settle in specific areas that had been depopulated.[23]
Relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from intermittent uprisings.[24] There was also a continuity of the Peloponnesian Greek population. This is especially true in Mani and Tsakonia, where Slavic incursions were minimal, or non-existent. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks, who remained in the towns, while Greek villages continued to exist in the interior, governing themselves, possibly paying tribute to the Slavs.[25] The first attempt by the Byzantine imperial government to re-assert its control over the independent Slavic tribes of the Peloponnese occurred in 783, with the logothete Staurakios' overland campaign from Constantinople into Greece and the Peloponnese, which according to Theophanes the Confessor made many prisoners and forced the Slavs to pay tribute.[26]
From the mid-9th century, following a
The imposition of Byzantine rule over the Slavic enclaves may have largely been a process of Christianization and accommodation of Slavic chieftains into the Imperial fold, as literary,
The success of the Hellenization campaign also shows that the Slavs had settled among many Greeks, in contrast to areas further north in what is now Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia, as those areas could not be Hellenized when they were recovered by the Byzantines in the early 11th century.[32] A human genetics study in 2017 showed that the Peloponnesians have little admixture with populations of the Slavic homeland and are much closer to Sicilians and southern Italians.[33]
Apart from the troubled relations with the Slavs, the coastal regions of the Peloponnese suffered greatly from repeated Arab raids following the Arab capture of Crete in the 820s and the establishment of a corsair emirate there.[34][35] After the island was recovered by Byzantium in 961 however, the region entered a period of renewed prosperity, where agriculture, commerce, and urban industry flourished.[34]
Frankish rule and Byzantine reconquest
In 1205, following the destruction of the Byzantine Empire by the forces of the
In 1208, William I founded a commission at
Despotate of Morea and Ottoman incursions
Frankish supremacy in the peninsula, however, received a critical blow after the
While Mystras served as the provincial capital from this time, it became a royal capital in 1349, when the first despot was appointed to rule over the Morea. The Byzantine Emperor
Theodore I ruled until 1407, consolidating Byzantine rule and coming to terms with his more powerful neighbours—particularly the expansionist Ottoman Empire, whose suzerainty he recognised.[47] Subsequent despots were the sons of the Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos, brother of the despot Theodore: Theodore II, Constantine, Demetrios, and Thomas. As Latin power in the Peloponnese waned during the 15th century, the Despotate of the Morea expanded to incorporate the entire peninsula in 1430 with territory being acquired by dowry settlements, and the conquest of Patras by Constantine. However, in 1446 the Ottoman Sultan Murad II destroyed the Byzantine defences—the Hexamilion wall at the Isthmus of Corinth.[48] His attack opened the peninsula to invasion, though Murad died before he could exploit this. His successor Mehmed II "the Conqueror" captured the Byzantine capital Constantinople in 1453. The despots, Demetrios Palaiologos and Thomas Palaiologos, brothers of the last emperor, failed to send him any aid, as Morea was recovering from a recent Ottoman attack. Their own incompetence resulted in the Morea revolt of 1453–1454 led by Manuel Kantakouzenos against them, during which they invited in Ottoman troops to help them put down the revolt. At this time, the Greek archons made peace with Mehmed.[49] After more years of incompetent rule by the despots, their failure to pay their annual tribute to the Sultan, and finally their own revolt against Ottoman rule, Mehmed came into the Morea in May 1460. Demetrios ended up a prisoner of the Ottomans and his younger brother Thomas fled. By the end of the summer the Ottomans had achieved the submission of virtually all cities possessed by the Greeks.
Ottoman incursions into the Morea resumed under
Albanian migration, settlement and relocations to Italy
The same period was also marked by the migration and settlement of
Following Ottoman conquest, many Albanians fled to Italy, settling primarily in nowadays
A demographic census by Alfred Philippson, based on fieldwork between 1887 and 1889, found that out of the approximately 730,000 inhabitants of the Peloponnese, and the three neighboring islands of Poros, Hydra and Spetses, Arvanites numbered 90,253, or 12.3% of the total population.[58][59]
Ottoman conquest, Venetian interlude and Ottoman reconquest
The Venetian fortresses were conquered in a series of
Following the Ottoman conquest, the peninsula was made into a province (sanjak), with 109 ziamets and 342 timars. During the first period of Ottoman rule (1460–1687), the capital was first in Corinth (Turk. Gördes), later in Leontari (Londari), Mystras (Misistire) and finally in Nauplion (Tr. Anaboli). Sometime in the mid-17th century, the Morea became the centre of a separate eyalet, with Patras (Ballibadra) as its capital.[61][62] Until the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1570, the Christian population (counted at some 42,000 families c. 1550[60]) managed to retain some privileges and Islamization was slow, mostly among the Albanians or the estate owners who were integrated into the Ottoman feudal system.
Although they quickly came to control most of the fertile lands, Muslims remained a distinct minority. Christian communities retained a large measure of self-government, but the entire Ottoman period was marked by a flight of the Christian population from the plains to the mountains. This occasioned the rise of the
With the outbreak of the "
The Peloponnese now became the core of the
The Greeks of the Peloponnese rose against the Ottomans with Russian aid during the so-called "
The Ottoman government was unable to pay the wages the Albanian mercenaries demanded for their service, causing the latter to ravage the region even after revolt had been put down.[70] 1770-1779 was a prolonged period of devastation and atrocities committed by Albanian irregulars in the Peloponnese.[71] In 1774 the Russo-Turkish War ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca which granted general amnesty to the population. Nevertheless, attacks by Muslim Albanian mercenaries in the region continued not only against the Greek population but also against Turks.[72] The extensive destruction and lack of control in the Peloponnese forced the central Ottoman government to send a regular Turkish military force to suppress those Albanian troops in 1779,[73] and eventually drive them out from Peloponnese.[74] As a result of the invasion by those mercenary groups the local population had to found refuge in the mountains of Peloponnese to avoid persecution. The total population decreased during this time, while the Muslim element in it increased.[64]
As such Greek resistance in the peninsula was reinforced and powerful groups of
Modern Greece
The Peloponnesians played a major role in the Greek War of Independence – the war began in the Peloponnese, when rebels took control of Kalamata on March 23, 1821. After the arrival of Ypsilantis's emissaries, local people rose under the leadership of Mavromichalis. Greek and Albanian insurgents organised in units of armed civilians took control of most of the fortresses.[76] The Greek insurgents made rapid progress and the entire peninsula was under Greek control within a few months, except for a few coastal forts and the main Turkish garrison at Tripolitsa.[77] The fighting was fierce and marked by atrocities on both sides; eventually the entire Muslim population was either massacred or fled to the forts. The capture of Tripolitsa in September 1821 marked a turning point. Rivalries among the insurgents eventually erupted into civil war in 1824, which enabled the Ottoman Egyptian vassal Ibrahim Pasha to land in the peninsula in 1825.[77]
The Peloponnese peninsula was the scene of fierce fighting and extensive devastation following the arrival of Ibrahim's Egyptian troops. Partly as a result of the atrocities committed by Ibrahim, the UK, France, and the Russian Empire decided to intervene in favor of the Greeks. The decisive naval Battle of Navarino was fought in 1827 off Pylos on the west coast of the Peloponnese, where a combined British, French and Russian fleet decisively defeated the Turko-Egyptian fleet.[77] Subsequently, a French expeditionary corps cleared the last Turko-Egyptian forces from the peninsula in 1828. The city of Nafplion, on the east coast of the peninsula, became the first capital of the independent Greek state. By the conclusion of the war, the entire Muslim population of the newly independent Greek state, including the Peloponnese, had been exterminated or had fled.[78]
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the region became relatively poor and economically isolated. A significant part of its population emigrated to the larger cities of Greece, especially Athens, and other countries such as the United States and Australia. It was badly affected by the Second World War and Greek Civil War, experiencing some of the worst atrocities committed in Greece during those conflicts. Living standards improved dramatically throughout Greece after the country accedes to the European Union in 1981.
The
Regional units
- Arcadia – 100,611 inhabitants
- Argolis – 108, 636 inhabitants
- Corinthia – 144,527 inhabitants (except municipalities of Agioi Theodoroi and most of Loutraki-Perachora, which lie east of the Corinth Canal)
- Laconia – 100,871 inhabitants
- Messenia – 180,264 inhabitants
- Achaea – 331,316 inhabitants
- Elis– 198,763 inhabitants
- Troizinia and part of Poros)
Cities
The principal modern cities of the Peloponnese are (2011 census):
- Patras – 170,896 inhabitants
- Kalamata – 62,409 inhabitants
- Corinth – 38,132 inhabitants
- Tripoli – 30,912 inhabitants
- Aigio – 26,523 inhabitants
- Pyrgos – 25,180 inhabitants
- Argos – 24,700 inhabitants
- Sparta– 19,854 inhabitants
- Nafplio – 18,910 inhabitants
- Amaliada - 18,303 inhabitants
Archaeological sites
The Peloponnese possesses many important archaeological sites dating from the Bronze Age through to the Middle Ages. Among the most notable are:
- Bassae‡ (ancient town and the temple of Epikourios Apollo and Greece's first UNESCO World Heritage Site)
- Corinth (ancient city)
- Diros caves (4000 – 3000 BC)
- Epidaurus‡ (ancient religious and healing centre)
- Koroni (medieval seaside fortress and city walls)
- Kalamata Acropolis (medieval acropolis and fortress located within the modern city)
- Messene (ancient city)
- Methoni (medieval seaside fortress and city walls)
- Mystras‡ (medieval Byzantine fortress-town near Sparta)
- Monemvasia (medieval Byzantine fortress-town)
- Mycenae‡ (fortress-town of the eponymous civilization)
- Olympia‡ (site of the Ancient Olympic Games)
- Pylos (the Palace of Nestor and a well-preserved medieval/early modern fortress)
- Pavlopetri (the oldest underwater city in the world, located in Vatika Bay, dating from the early Bronze Age 3500 BC)
- Sparta
- Tegea (ancient religious centre)
- Tiryns‡ (ancient fortified settlement)
‡ UNESCO World Heritage Site
Cuisine
Specialities of the region:
- Gogges (or Gogglies or Stripta makaronia), pasta
- Giosa, lamb or goat meat
- Gournopoula (or Bouziopoula), pork
- Hilopites
- Kalamata olive
- Kolokythopita (pumpkin pie)
- Chortopita
- Piperopita
- Kagianas
- Trahanas
- Kokoras krasatos
- Katsikaki me patates
- Melitzanes Tsakonias (Tsakonia)
- Syglino (pork meat) (Mani Peninsula)
- Regali (lamb soup) (Mani)
- Diples (dessert)
- Galatopita (dessert)
- Tentura drink (Patras area)
Several notable Peloponnese
See also
Footnotes
- ^ "Monthly Bulletins". www.meteo.gr.
- ^ "Meteo search". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 27 January 2024.
- ^ "June 2007 climatological summary Monemvasia NOA". National Observatory of Athens. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
- ^ "Meteo.gr – Προγνώσεις καιρού για όλη την Ελλάδα".
- ^ "Latest Conditions in Patras".
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization". Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ "Meteo.gr – Προγνώσεις καιρού για όλη την Ελλάδα".
- ^ "Latest Conditions in Monemvasia".
- ^ "World Meteorological Organization". Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ "Climate" (in Greek). National Observatory of Athens. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022.
- ^ "N.O.A Monthly Bulletins".
- ^ "Latest Conditions in Sparta".
- ^ "WMO". Retrieved 14 July 2023.
- ^ Kazhdan (1991), p. 927
- ^ a b Kazhdan (1991), p. 1620
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 65
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 63
- ^ Gregory, TE (2010), A History of Byzantium, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 169,
It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably, for the most part, the same as those who had lived there earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at themselves as distinct from their neighbors, including the Byzantines.
- ^ Curta (2011), pp. 283–285
- ^ Obolensky (1971), pp. 54–55, 75
- ^ Kazhdan (1991), pp. 911, 1620–1621
- ^ Curta (2011), pp. 279–281
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 254
- ^ Fine (1983), p. 63
- ^ a b Fine (1983), p. 61
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 126
- ^ Fine (1983), pp. 80, 82
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 134
- ^ Fine (1983), p. 79
- ^ Fine (1983), p. 83
- ^ Curta (2011), p. 285
- ^ Fine (1983), p. 64
- Stamatoyannopoulos, George et al., Genetics of the Peloponnesian populations and the theory of extinction of the medieval Peloponnesian Greeks, European Journal of Human Genetics, 25.5 (2017), pp. 637–645
- ^ a b Kazhdan (1991), p. 1621
- ^ Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 236
- ^ Kazhdan (1991), pp. 11, 1621, 2158
- ^ Kazhdan (1991), p. 1409
- ^ Setton (1976), p. 30
- ^ Miller (1921), p. 71
- ^ Miller (1921), pp. 72–73
- ^ Setton (1976), p. 31
- ^ Miller (1921), p. 74
- ^ Bon 1969, pp. 122–125.
- ^ Gregory & Ševčenko 1991, p. 1382.
- ^ Bon 1969, pp. 129ff..
- ^ a b c Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 237
- ^ Runciman 2009.
- ^ Rosser 2011, p. 335.
- ^ Contemporary Copy of the Letter of Mehmet II to the Greek Archons 26 December 1454 (ASV Documenti Turchi B.1/11) Archived 27 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
- OCLC 466183733.
- ^ Obolensky (1971), p. 8
- ^ Liakopoulos, Georgios (2019), The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463), Ginko, p. 213,
During the rule of Manuel Cantacuzenus in Mystras (1348-1380), Albanians were mentioned in the Veligosti area"... "in the late 1370s and the early 1380s Neri Acciamoli, the lord of Corinth, in his confrontation with the Navarrese recruited [800] Albanian mercenaries"..."By 1391 there was an influx of Albanians that could be hired as mercenaries"... "The Venetians were in need of colonists and soldiers in their depopulated areas and hence offered plots of arable land, pastures and tax exemptions to the wandering Albanians in southern Greece
- ^ Liakopoulos, Georgios (2019), The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463), Ginko, p. 214,
...Albanian nomadic clans, who formed populous groups consisting of families, or tribes. They came to the Peloponnese carrying their animals and movable goods and offered military service in return for being allowed to settle, and enjoy free movement and tax exemption.
- ^ Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (1974). "Arvanitika: the long Hellenic centuries of an Albanian variety". International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 132–134: 61.
Military reports give us fairly accurate data for the time of the colonization : sources report 30,000 Albanian men fit for military service on the Peloponnese around 1425 .
- ^ Liakopoulos 2015, p. 114
- ^ Liakopoulos, Georgios (2019), The Early Ottoman Peloponnese: a study in the light of an annotated edition princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman taxation cadastre (ca. 1460-1463), Ginko, p. 214,
the main reason for placing them in a different category in the cadastre is the 20% reduction on the ispence encumbrance (20 akces instead of the 25 the Greeks paid). This most probably mirrors a late Byzantine and Venetian practice that the Ottomans adopted to control the intractable Albanians"..."Within half a century, the favorable taxation terms granted to the Albanians had ceased to exist
- ^ Biris 1998, p. 340
- ISSN 1613-3668.
- ISSN 0031-6229.
- ^ a b Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 239
- ^ a b c Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 238
- ^ Birken (1976), pp. 57, 61–64
- ^ Bées & Savvides (1993), pp. 239–240
- ^ a b c d e Bées & Savvides (1993), p. 240
- ISBN 978-960-7897-40-4.
- ISBN 978-1-107-72967-4.
No area suffered more than the Morea, which was pillaged regularly by Albanian gangs over the decades after 1770, despite Istanbul's repeated strictures against Albanians setting foot on the peninsula.
- ISBN 9780857719478.
...when the Turks and Albanians reasserted themselves they were merciless; recapturing Patras, they left scarcely anyone alive.
- ISBN 9780857718105.
- ISBN 978-0-85772-167-9.
- ISBN 9780857718105.
- ISBN 978-0-88033-581-2.
The 1770 revolution ended not only in failure but a prolonged period of devastation and atrocity in the Peloponnesus, committed by Albanian irregulars
- ISBN 9781134536030.
- ^ Jelavich 1983, p. 78.
- ^ Stavrianos 2000, p. 189.
- hdl:10442/hedi/8139.
- ^ Isabella, Maurizio (2023). Southern Europe in the Age of Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 129.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4.
- ^ William St Clair, That Greece Might Still Be Free, Open Book Publishers, 2008, p.104-107 ebook
References
- Biris, Kostas (1998). Αρβανίτες: οι Δωριείς του Νεώτερου Ελληνισμού (in Greek). Melissa. ISBN 978-960-204-031-7.
- Bon, Antoine (1969). La Morée franque. Recherches historiques, topographiques et archéologiques sur la principauté d'Achaïe (in French). Paris: De Boccard.
- ISBN 9780521252492.
- Koryllos, Christos (1890). Η Εθνογραφία της Πελοποννήσου: Απάντησις εις τα υπό του κ. A. Philippson γραφέντα (in Greek).
- Liakopoulos, Georgios C. (2015). "A Study of the Early Ottoman Peloponnese in the Light of an Annotated editio princeps of the TT10-1/14662 Ottoman Taxation Cadastre (c.1460–1463)". Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies Bulletin. 1. ISSN 2410-0951.
- Rosser, John H. (2011). Historical Dictionary of Byzantium (Second ed.). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0810874770.
- ISBN 978-1-84511-895-2.
- Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (2000). The Balkans Since 1453. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 187–190, 195. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0.
Further reading
- Bées, N. A. & Savvides, A. (1993). "Mora". In ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2.
- Birken, Andreas (1976). Die Provinzen des Osmanischen Reiches. Beihefte zum Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients (in German). Vol. 13. Reichert. ISBN 9783920153568.
- ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
- ISBN 0-19-504652-8.
- Miller, W. (1964). The Latins in the Levant: A history of Frankish Greece (1204-1566). Cambridge: Speculum Historiale.
- Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453. Praeger Publishers.
- Florin Curta (2011). ISBN 9780748638093.
- Setton, Kenneth (1976). The Papacy and the Levant, 1204-1571. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. OCLC 2698253.
External links
- Britannica.com
- Official Regional Government Website
- Greek Fire Survivors Mourn Amid Devastation in Peloponnese.
- Stewart, Daniel (2013). "Storing up Problems: Labour, Storage, and the Rural Peloponnese". Internet Archaeology (34). doi:10.11141/ia.34.4.