Human: Difference between revisions

Human
	An adult human male (left) and female (right) from the Akha tribe in Northern Thailand.
Conservation status
	; Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Primates
Suborder:	Haplorhini
Infraorder:	Simiiformes
Family:	Hominidae
Subfamily:	Homininae
Tribe:	Hominini
Genus:	Homo
Species:	H. sapiens
Binomial name
	Homo sapiens; Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
	Homo sapiens idaltu White et al., 2003; Homo sapiens sapiens
	Homo sapiens population density
Synonyms
	Species synonymy aethiopicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; americanus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; arabicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; aurignacensis; Klaatsch & Hauser, 1910 ; australasicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; cafer; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; capensis; Broom, 1917 ; columbicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; cro-magnonensis; Gregory, 1921 ; drennani; Kleinschmidt, 1931 ; eurafricanus; (Sergi, 1911) ; grimaldiensis; Gregory, 1921 ; grimaldii; Lapouge, 1906 ; hottentotus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; hyperboreus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; indicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; japeticus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; melaninus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; monstrosus; Linnaeus, 1758 ; neptunianus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; palestinus; McCown & Keith, 1932 ; patagonus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; priscus; Lapouge, 1899 ; proto-aethiopicus; Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1915 ; scythicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; sinicus; Bory de St. Vincent, 1825 ; spelaeus; Lapouge, 1899 ; troglodytes; Linnaeus, 1758 ; wadjakensis; Dubois, 1921 ;

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Humans (

societies.^[3]^[4]

Early hominins—particularly the
anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 ka).^[12]^[13]^[14] Humans began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity at least by about 100-70,000 years ago^[15]^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20] and (according to recent evidence) as far back as around 300,000 years ago, in the Middle Stone Age,^[21]^[22]^[23] (with some features of behavioral modernity possibly beginning earlier, and possibly in parallel with evolutionary brain globularization in H. sapiens). In several waves of migration, H. sapiens ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world.^[24]^[25]

The spread of the
reasoning, language, problem solving, sociality, and culture through social learning. Humans use tools more frequently and effectively than any other animal: they are the only extant species to build fires, cook food, clothe themselves, and create and use numerous other technologies and arts
.
Humans uniquely use such systems of symbolic communication as language and art to express themselves and exchange ideas, and also organize themselves into purposeful groups. Humans create complex
mythology, religion
, and numerous other fields of knowledge.
Though most of human existence has been sustained by hunting and gathering in band societies,^[27] many human societies transitioned to sedentary agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago,^[28] domesticating plants and animals, thus enabling the growth of civilization. These human societies subsequently expanded, establishing various forms of government, religion, and culture around the world, and unifying people within regions to form states and empires. The rapid advancement of scientific and medical understanding in the 19th and 20th centuries permitted the development of fuel-driven technologies and increased lifespans, causing the human population to rise exponentially. The global human population was estimated to be near 8.1 billion in 2019.^[29]

Etymology and definition

Further information: Man (word) and Names for the human species

In common usage, the word "human" generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo—anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens.
In scientific terms, the meanings of "

anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens

, the earliest fossil members of the species.

The English adjective human is a Middle English loanword from Old French humain, ultimately from Latin hūmānus, the adjective form of homō "man." The word's use as a noun (with a plural: humans) dates to the 16th century.^[30] The native English term man can refer to the species generally (a synonym for humanity) as well as to human males, or individuals of either sex (though this latter form is less common in contemporary English).^[31]

The species

generic name "Homo" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin homō "man," ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin hemō a cognate to Old English guma "man", from PIE dʰǵʰ_emon-, meaning "earth" or "ground").^[33] The species-name "sapiens" means "wise" or "sapient". Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, and that "sapiens" is the singular form (while there is no such word as "sapien").^[34]

History

million years ago

)

Evolution and range

The genus Homo evolved and diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids (great apes) branch of the primates. Modern humans, defined as the species Homo sapiens or specifically to the single extant subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000–60,000 years ago,^[35]^[36] Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280.^[37]^[38]

Evidence from molecular biology

Symphalangus

). All except gibbons are hominids.

The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees (genus

Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first groups to split from the line leading to the humans, then gorillas (genus Gorilla) followed by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch.^[42]^[43] During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.^[44]

Evidence from the fossil record

There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee and hominin lineages.
gracile branches,^[47] possibly one of which (such as A. garhi, dating to 2.5 million years ago) is a direct ancestor of the genus Homo.^[48]

The earliest members of the genus Homo are
Skhul in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago.^[56]

Anatomical adaptations

Human evolution is characterized by a number of
last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are 1. bipedalism, 2. increased brain size, 3. lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), 4. decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.^[57] Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in H. erectus.^[58]

australopithecines and later the genus Homo. ^{[citation needed]} There are several theories of the adaptational value of bipedalism. It is possible that bipedalism was favored because it freed up the hands for reaching and carrying food, because it saved energy during locomotion, because it enabled long distance running and hunting, or as a strategy for avoiding hyperthermia by reducing the surface exposed to direct sun.^{[citation needed}
]
The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates—typically 1,330 cm³ (81 cu in) in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla.
solving social problems
as human society became more complex.
The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is primarily visible in the reduction of the male
pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring.^{[citation needed}
]

Rise of Homo sapiens

millennia
before present, the North Pole is at the center).

Main article:
Homo sapiens

Further information:
Prehistoric autopsy, and Recent African origin of modern humans

By the beginning of the
music and other cultural universals had developed.^[74]^[75]
As early Homo sapiens dispersed, it encountered varieties of
archaic humans
both in Africa and in Eurasia, in Eurasia notably Homo neanderthalensis. Since 2010, evidence for
gene flow between archaic and modern humans
during the period of roughly 100,000 to 30,000 years ago has been discovered. This includes modern human admixture in Neanderthals, Neanderthal admixture in all modern humans outside Africa, ^[76]^[77]
Denisova hominin admixture in Melanesians^[78]
as well as admixture from unnamed archaic humans to some Sub-Saharan African populations.[79]
The "out of Africa" migration of Homo sapiens took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago,^[80]^[81]^[82] resulting in the colonization of Australia around 65-50,000 years ago,^[83]^[84]^[85] This recent out of Africa migration derived from East African populations, which had become separated from populations migrating to Southern, Central and Western Africa at least 100,000 years earlier.^[86] Modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing archaic humans (either through competition or hybridization). They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years ago, and the Americas at least 14,500 years ago.^[87]^[88]

Transition to modernity

Main articles: Neolithic Revolution and Cradle of civilization

Further information: History of the world

human settlements
.

Until about 12,000 years ago (the beginning of the
band societies
, often in caves.
The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture) took place beginning about 10,000 years ago, first in the Fertile Crescent, spreading through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia, and independently in Mesoamerica about 6,000 years ago. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history.
Agriculture and sedentary lifestyle led to the emergence of early
civilizations (the development of urban development, complex society, social stratification and writing
) from about 5,000 years ago (the Bronze Age), first beginning in Mesopotamia.^[89]
Few human populations progressed to
globalisation
and
colonialism
.
The
imaging technology, major innovations in transport, such as the airplane and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity.^[90] This correlates with population growth (especially in America)^[91] and higher life expectancy, the World population rapidly increased numerous times in the 19th and 20th centuries as nearly 10% of the 100 billion people who ever lived lived in the past century.^[92]

With the advent of the
global warming in the future.^[96]

Habitat and population

The Earth, as seen from space in 2016, showing the extent of human occupation of the planet. The bright lights signify both the most densely inhabited areas and ones financially capable of illuminating those areas.

Tokyo, the world's largest metropolitan area, is an example of a mass human settlement called a city

Further information: Human migration, Demography, and World population

See also: City, Town, Nomad, Camping, Farm, House, Watercraft, Infrastructure, Architecture, Building, and Engineering

Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to
transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.^{[citation needed}
]
Technology has allowed humans to colonize six of the
underwater environment, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these environments is not yet feasible. With a population of over seven billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).^[101]

Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time.^[102] Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of June 2024, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on 31 October 2000.^[103] However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects.^[104]^[105]^[106]
Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion^[107] to over seven billion.^[108] The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at ~ 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals.^[109]
In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's population would live in urban areas by the end of the year.^[110] Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,^[111] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Both overall population numbers and the proportion residing in cities are expected to increase significantly in the coming decades.^[112]
Humans have had a dramatic effect on the
fossil fuels, and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change.^[114] If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that climate change will wipe out half of all plant and animal species over the next century.^[115]^[116]

Biology

toenails
and a ring.

Anatomy and physiology

Main article: Human body

Further information:
Anatomically modern human, and Sex differences in humans

Most aspects of human physiology are closely
immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the musculoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system.^[117]^[118]

Humans, like most of the other
throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances.^[119]^[120] Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances.^[121]

As a consequence of bipedalism, human females have narrower
less developed and more vulnerable. Chimpanzee babies are cognitively more developed than human babies until the age of six months, when the rapid development of human brains surpasses chimpanzees. Another difference between women and chimpanzee females is that women go through the menopause and become unfertile decades before the end of their lives. All species of non-human apes are capable of giving birth until death. Menopause probably developed as it provides an evolutionary advantage of more caring time to relatives' young.^[120]

Apart from bipedalism, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in
neurons. The mental abilities of humans are remarkable compared to other apes. Humans' ability of speech is unique among primates. Humans are able to create new and complex ideas, and to develop technology, which is unprecedented among other organisms on Earth.^[120]

It is estimated that the worldwide average
mass of an adult human is 54–64 kg (119–141 lb) for females and 70–83 kg (154–183 lb) for males.^[124]^[125] Like many other conditions, body weight and body type is influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. (see obesity)^[126]^[127]

Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head,
eccrine sweat glands
among species.
The
third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.^[130]

Genetics

Main article: Human genetics

Further information: Human evolutionary genetics

A graphical representation of the standard human karyotype, including both the male (XY) and female (XX) sex chromosomes.

Like all mammals, humans are a diploid eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY.^[131]
A rough and incomplete
alleles.^{[citation needed}
]
By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. Each time a certain mutation (SNP) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a
mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.^[137]^[138]^[139]

Human accelerated regions, first described in August 2006,^[140]^[141] are a set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans. They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and their nearest animal relative (chimpanzees) (HAR1 showing the largest degree of human-chimpanzee differences). Found by scanning through genomic databases of multiple species, some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits.^{[citation needed]}
The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.^[142]

Life cycle

human embryo
at 5 weeks

Boy and girl before puberty

Adolescent
male and female

Adult man and woman

Elderly
man and woman

See also:
Human development (biology)

As with other mammals,
implantation, gestation then occurs within the female's uterus
.
The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of 38 weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a fetus. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.
Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting 24 hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, the child or both.
maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.^[146]

In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 50–60 cm (20–24 in) in height at birth.
young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%, with no pronounced spurt.^[149] The presence of the growth spurt is probably necessary to keep children physically small until they are psychologically mature. Humans are one of the few species in which females undergo menopause. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.^[150]^[151]

Evidence-based studies indicate that the life span of an individual depends on two major factors,
developing world the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.^[156] The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002.^[157] Jeanne Calment is widely believed to have reached the age of 122;^[158]
higher ages have been claimed but are unsubstantiated.

Diet

Main article: Human nutrition

deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.^[161] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science
.
Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with
infectious diseases
. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.
In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation.
developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese,^[169] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic."^[170] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet.^[169]

Biological variation

Main article: Human genetic variation

People in hot climates are often slender, lanky, and dark skinned, such as these Maasai men from Kenya.

According to Allen's rule, people in cold climates tend to be shorter, lighter skinned, and stockier, such as these Inuit women from Canada.

No two humans—not even
genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.^[171]^[172]

Most current
human gene pool.^[177]^[178]^[179]

The human body's ability to
arctic regions, and heavily polluted cities. Most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability.^[180]

There is biological variation in the human species—with traits such as
clinally with darker skin around the equator—where the added protection from the sun's ultraviolet radiation is thought to give an evolutionary advantage—and lighter skin tones closer to the poles.^[183]^[184]^[185]^[186]

The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of
ultraviolet radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make.^[188] Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.^[189]^[190]^[191]

Structure of variation

Syrian, and an Egyptian, drawing by an unknown artist after a mural of the tomb of Seti I
.

The ancestors of Native Americans, such as this Yanomami woman, crossed into the Americas from Northeast Asia, and genetic and linguistic evidence links them to North Asian populations, particularly those of East Siberia.^[192]

An older adult human male European in Paris – playing chess at the Jardin du Luxembourg.

Within the human species, the greatest degree of genetic
longer life span in almost every population around the world.^[193]^[194]^[195]^[196]^[197]^[198]^[199]^[200]^[201]

Males typically have larger
recreational sex to reinforce social bonds and reduce aggression.^[209]

Humans of the same sex are 99.9% genetically identical. There is extremely little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that does occur is at the personal level within local areas, and not between populations.[179]^[210]^[211] Of the 0.1% of human genetic differentiation, 85% exists within any randomly chosen local population, be they Italians, Koreans, or Kurds. Two randomly chosen Koreans may be genetically as different as a Korean and an Italian. Any ethnic group contains 85% of the human genetic diversity of the world. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are about as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.^[179]^[212]^[213]^[214]
Current genetic research has demonstrated that humans on the
bottlenecks during human migration.^[216]^[217] Humans have lived in Africa for the longest time, which has allowed accumulation of a higher diversity of genetic mutations in these populations. Only part of Africa's population migrated out of the continent, bringing just part of the original African genetic variety with them. African populations harbor genetic alleles that are not found in other places of the world. All the common alleles found in populations outside of Africa are found on the African continent.^[179]

Geographical distribution of human variation is complex and constantly shifts through time which reflects complicated human evolutionary history. Most human biological variation is clinally distributed and blends gradually from one area to the next. Groups of people around the world have different frequencies of polymorphic genes. Furthermore, different traits are non-concordant and each have different clinal distribution. Adaptability varies both from person to person and from population to population. The most efficient adaptive responses are found in geographical populations where the environmental stimuli are the strongest (e.g. Tibetans are highly adapted to high altitudes). The clinal geographic genetic variation is further complicated by the migration and mixing between human populations which has been occurring since prehistoric times.^[179]^[218]^[219]^[220]^[221]^[222]
Human variation is highly non-concordant: most of the genes do not cluster together and are not inherited together. Skin and hair color are not correlated to height, weight, or athletic ability. Human species do not share the same patterns of variation through geography. Skin color varies with latitude and certain people are tall or have brown hair. There is a statistical correlation between particular features in a population, but different features are not expressed or inherited together. Thus, genes which code for superficial physical traits—such as skin color, hair color, or height—represent a minuscule and insignificant portion of the human genome and do not correlate with genetic affinity. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.
Andamanese) having similar physical features with African pygmy populations such as short stature, dark skin, and curly hair, they are not genetically closely related to these populations.^[226] Genetic variants affecting superficial anatomical features (such as skin color)—from a genetic perspective, are essentially meaningless—they involve a few hundred of the billions of nucleotides in a person's DNA.^[227] Individuals with the same morphology do not necessarily cluster with each other by lineage, and a given lineage does not include only individuals with the same trait complex.^[179]^[213]^[228]

Due to practices of group
discrete groups of humans. Human variation is continuous, with no clear points of demarcation. There are no large clusters of relatively homogeneous people and almost every individual has genetic alleles from several ancestral groups.^[179]^[220]^[221]^[228]^[229]^[230]^[231]^[232]^[233]^[234]^[235]^[236]

Psychology

Main article: Psychology

Further information: Human brain and Mind

Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures

The human brain, the focal point of the
cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology
.
Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and
using simple tools
—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.

Sleep and dreaming

Main articles: Sleep and Dream

Humans are generally
REM phase of sleep
.

Consciousness and thought

Main articles: Consciousness and Cognition

Humans are one of the relatively few species to have sufficient self-awareness to recognize themselves in a mirror.^[239] Around 18 months most human children are aware that the mirror image is not another person.^[240]
The human brain
sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment
. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above.
The physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, are studied in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.
The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields.
tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population.^[241]

Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience.
academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment
.

Motivation and emotion

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Main articles: Motivation and Emotion

Illustration of grief from Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate
coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic
influences.
Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some people might define it as the best condition that a human can have—a condition of
good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe
or society.
Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many cultures and philosophers have for various reasons discouraged allowing this influence to go unchecked. Emotional experiences perceived as
Sufi teachers felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy
.
In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a variety of
domesticated and non-domesticated mammals
. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime.

Sexuality and love

Main articles: Love and Human sexuality

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Human parents continue caring for their offspring long after they are born.

For humans, sexuality has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among individuals, besides ensuring biological
estrus
through visible signs, human females do not have a distinct or visible signs of ovulation, plus they experience sexual desire outside of their fertile periods.
Human choices in acting on sexuality are commonly influenced by social norms which vary between cultures. Restrictions are often determined by religious beliefs or social customs. People can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation.^[243] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.^[244] Recent research, including neurology and genetics, suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well.^[245]

Behavior

Main articles: Culture, Society, and Human behavior

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Human society statistics

World population^[29] 8.1 billion

Population density^[29]^[246] 16/km² (41/sq mi) by total area
54/km² (141/sq mi) by land area

Largest cities^[247]

Long Beach-Santa Ana, Moscow, Kinshasa, Tianjin, Paris, Shenzhen, Jakarta, Bangalore, London, Chennai, Lima

Most widely spoken native languages^[248]
Oriya, Burmese, Thai

Most popular religions^[249] Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Judaism

GDP (nominal)
^{[citation needed]}
US$
36,356,240 million
(US$5,797 per capita)

GDP (PPP)
^{[citation needed]} $51,656,251 million IND
($8,236 per capita)

Humans often live in family-based social structures.

Humans are highly social beings and tend to live in large complex social groups. More than any other creature, humans are capable of using systems of communication for self-expression, the exchange of ideas, and
social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups. Human groups range from the size of families to nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety^{[clarification needed}
] of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society.
Culture is defined here as patterns of complex symbolic behavior, i.e. all behavior that is not innate but which has to be learned through social interaction with others; such as the use of distinctive
symbolic systems
, including language, ritual, social organization, traditions, beliefs and technology.

Language

While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal. Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open—an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols. Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors.^[130] Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, auditively in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and even through tactile media such as braille. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least five thousand years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major technological advancement. The science of linguistics describes the structure and function of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct.^[250]

Gender roles

Main articles: Gender role and Gender

The sexual division of humans into male, female, and in some societies other genders
power. Cultural differences
by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.

Kinship

Main articles: Kinship and Marriage

Sessue Hayakawa (left) with actress and wife Tsuru Aoki in a screen shot of the 1919 film The Dragon Painter.

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents and children (
descent groups, groups of people sharing a common line of descent, which can function as political units such as clans. Another function is the way in which kinship unites families through marriage, forming kinship alliances between groups of wife-takers and wife-givers. Such alliances also often have important political and economical ramifications, and may result in the formation of political organization above the community level. Kinship relations often includes regulations for whom an individual should or shouldn't marry. All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited—such rules vary widely between cultures.^{[citation needed]} Some societies also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations, frequently with either cross or parallel cousins. Rules and norms for marriage and social behavior among kinsfolk is often reflected in the systems of kinship terminology in the various languages of the world. In many societies kinship relations can also be formed through forms of co-habitation, adoption, fostering, or companionship, which also tends to create relations of enduring solidarity (nurture kinship
).

Ethnicity

Main article:
Ethnic group

Humans often form ethnic groups, such groups tend to be larger than kinship networks and be organized around a common identity defined variously in terms of shared ancestry and history, shared cultural norms and language, or shared biological phenotype. Such ideologies of shared characteristics are often perpetuated in the form of powerful, compelling narratives that give legitimacy and continuity to the set of shared values. Ethnic groupings often correspond to some level of political organization such as the
social identity and in constructing solidarity between members of an ethno-political unit. This unifying property of ethnicity has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries.^[252]^[253]^[254]^[255]^[256]^[257]

Society, government, and politics

Main articles: Origins of society, Society, Government, Politics, and State (polity)

United Nations Headquarters
in New York City, which houses one of the world's largest political organizations

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Within a society people can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation, etc., but the structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies.^[258] A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."^[259]
Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship, theocracy, and liberal democracy, the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.

Trade and economics

Main articles: Trade and Economics

Buyers and sellers bargaining in a market in Tengeru, Tanzania

Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods and services, and is a form of
division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labor for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production
.
Economics is a social science which studies the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value.

War

Men in period costume portraying soldiers during a 2011 reenactment of the Battle of Waterloo (1815)

Main article: War

War is a state of organized armed conflict between
melees, are not considered to be warfare. Revolutions can be nonviolent or an organized and armed revolution which denotes a state of war. During the 20th century, it is estimated that between 167 and 188 million people died as a result of war.^[260] A common definition defines war as a series of military campaigns between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over sovereignty, territory, resources, religion, or other issues. A war between internal elements of a state is a civil war
.
There have been a wide variety of
Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare as well through their use for detailed intelligence gathering; however, no known aggressive actions have been taken from space
.

Material culture and technology

Main articles: Tool and Technology

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.^[261] The controlled use of fire began around 1.5 million years ago. Since then, humans have made major advances, developing complex technology to create tools to aid their lives and allowing for other advancements in culture. Major leaps in technology include the discovery of agriculture—what is known as the Neolithic Revolution, and the invention of automated machines in the Industrial Revolution.
stone tools, pottery
, and jewelry that are particular to various regions and times.

Body culture

Main articles:
Haircut

Throughout history, humans have altered their appearance by wearing clothing [262] and adornments, by trimming or shaving hair or by means of body modifications.
Body modification is the deliberate altering of the
human body for any non-medical reason, such as aesthetics, sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, religious reasons, to display group membership or affiliation, to create body art, shock value, or self-expression.^[263] In its most broad definition it includes plastic surgery, socially acceptable decoration (e.g. common ear piercing in many societies), and religious rites of passage (e.g. circumcision in a number of cultures).^[263]

Philosophy and self-reflection

Main articles:
Human self-reflection

See also: Human nature

Statue of Confucius on Chongming Island in Shanghai

Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.

Religion and spirituality

Main articles: Religion and Spirituality

Religion is generally defined as a
mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma
and God.
Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure,
irreligious. This includes humans who have no religious beliefs or do not identify with any religion. Humanism is a philosophy which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to humans; it is usually non-religious. Most religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level; the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive and a majority of humans hold a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion
and theology.

Art, music, and literature

Main articles: Art, Music, and Literature

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Allegory of Music (c. 1594), a painting of a woman writing sheet music by Lorenzo Lippi

Humans have been producing
art theory
) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings.
Music is a natural
ethnic musics. Literature, the body of written—and possibly oral—works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic
, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.

Science

Main article: Science

Another unique aspect of human culture and thought is the development of complex methods for acquiring knowledge through observation, quantification, and verification.^{[citation needed]} The scientific method has been developed to acquire knowledge of the physical world and the rules, processes and principles of which it consists, and combined with mathematics it enables the prediction of complex patterns of causality and consequence.^{[citation needed]} An understanding of mathematics is unique to humans, although other species of animal have some numerical cognition.^[269]

All of science can be divided into three major branches, the
social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology).^[270] A pseudoscience is an activity or a teaching which is mistakenly regarded as being scientific by its major proponents.^[271]

See also

Human nature

Holocene calendar

Human impact on the environment

Human timeline

Life timeline

List of human evolution fossils

Nature timeline

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Further reading

Freeman, Scott; Jon C. Herron (2007). Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.). Pearson Education, Inc.
ISBN 0-13-227584-8
. pp. 757–61.

Reich, David (2018). Who We Are And How We Got Here – Ancient DNA and the New Science of the Human Past.
ISBN 978-1101870327
.

External links

Humans at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Taxa from Wikispecies

Archaeology Info

Homo sapiens – The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

"Homo sapiens Linnaeus, 1758" at the Encyclopedia of Life

View the human genome on
Ensembl

Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

Media related to Homo sapiens at Wikimedia Commons

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@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 '''Humans''' (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') are the only [[Extant taxon|extant]] members of the [[subtribe]] [[Hominina]]. Together with [[Pan (genus)|chimpanzees]], [[gorilla]]s, and [[orangutan]]s, they are part of the family [[Hominidae]] (the great apes, or ''hominids''). A [[terrestrial animal]], humans are characterized by their [[Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism|erect posture]] and [[Bipedalism|bipedal locomotion]]; high [[manual dexterity]] and heavy tool use compared to other [[animal]]s; open-ended and complex [[Language|language use]] compared to other [[Animal language|animal communications]]; larger, more complex brains than other animals; and highly advanced and organized [[social animal|societies]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Goodman M, Tagle D, Fitch D, Bailey W, Czelusniak J, Koop B, Benson P, Slightom J |title=Primate evolution at the DNA level and a classification of hominoids |journal=J Mol Evol |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=260–66 |year=1990 |pmid=2109087 |doi=10.1007/BF02099995|bibcode=1990JMolE..30..260G }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hominidae Classification |work=Animal Diversity Web @ UMich |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Hominidae.html |accessdate=25 September 2006 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061005035254/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Hominidae.html |archivedate=5 October 2006 }}</ref>
-Early hominins—particularly the [[australopithecine]]s, whose brains and anatomy are in many ways more similar to ancestral non-human [[ape]]s—are less often referred to as "human" than hominins of the genus ''[[Homo]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tattersall Ian |author2=Schwartz Jeffrey |year=2009 |title=Evolution of the Genus Homo |url= |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=37 |issue= 1|pages=67–92 |doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100202|bibcode=2009AREPS..37...67T }}</ref> Several of these hominins [[Control of fire by early humans|used fire]], [[Early human migrations|occupied much of Eurasia]], and the lineage that gave rise to ''Homo sapiens'' is thought to have diverged in Africa around 500,000 years ago, with the earliest fossil evidence of evidence of early ''Homo sapiens'' appearing (also in Africa) around 300,000 years ago.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Scerri|first=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Thomas|first2=Mark G.|last3=Manica|first3=Andrea|last4=Gunz|first4=Philipp|last5=Stock|first5=Jay T.|last6=Stringer|first6=Chris|last7=Grove|first7=Matt|last8=Groucutt|first8=Huw S.|last9=Timmermann|first9=Axel|last10=Rightmire|first10=G. Philip|last11=d’Errico|first11=Francesco|date=1 August 2018|title=Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?|url=https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(18)30117-4|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|language=English|volume=33|issue=8|pages=582–594|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005|issn=0169-5347|pmid=30007846|pmc=6092560}}</ref> The oldest early ''H. sapiens'' fossils were found in [[Jebel Irhoud]], [[Morocco]] dating to about 315,000 years ago.<ref name="EA-20190320">{{cite news |author=University of Huddersfield |title=Researchers shed new light on the origins of modern humans – The work, published in Nature, confirms a dispersal of Homo sapiens from southern to eastern Africa immediately preceded the out-of-Africa migration |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/uoh-nrs032019.php |date=20 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=23 March 2019 |author-link=University of Huddersfield }}</ref><ref name="SR-20190318">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rito T, Vieira D, Silva M, Conde-Sousa E, Pereira L, Mellars P, Richards MB, Soares P | display-authors = 6 | title = A dispersal of Homo sapiens from southern to eastern Africa immediately preceded the out-of-Africa migration | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 4728 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30894612 | pmc = 6426877 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-019-41176-3 | bibcode = 2019NatSR...9.4728R }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/39908-ancient-human-evolution-science|title=Everything We Learned in One Year About Thousands of Years of Human Evolution|last=Sloat|first=Sarah|date=4 January 2018|website=Inverse|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012411/https://www.inverse.com/article/39908-ancient-human-evolution-science|archivedate=26 January 2018|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Antón, Susan C. |author2=Swisher III, Carl C. |year=2004 |title=Early Dispersals of homo from Africa |url= |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |issue= |pages=271–96 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.144024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Trinkaus Erik |year=2005 |title=Early Modern Humans |url= |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=34 |issue= |pages=207–30 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.030905.154913}}</ref> Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern [[Ethiopia]] is the oldest [[anatomically modern Homo sapiens]] skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 ka).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hammond|first=Ashley S.|last2=Royer|first2=Danielle F.|last3=Fleagle|first3=John G.|date=Jul 2017|title=The Omo-Kibish I pelvis|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=108|pages=199–219|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004|issn=1095-8606|pmid=28552208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleagle|first=John G.|last2=Brown|first2=Francis H.|last3=McDougall|first3=Ian|date=17 February 2005|title=Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=433|issue=7027|pages=733–736|doi=10.1038/nature03258|issn=1476-4687|pmid=15716951}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=López|first=Saioa|last2=van Dorp|first2=Lucy|last3=Hellenthal|first3=Garrett|date=2016-04-21|title=Human Dispersal Out of Africa: A Lasting Debate|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4844272/|journal=Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online|volume=11|issue=Suppl 2|pages=57–68|doi=10.4137/EBO.S33489|issn=1176-9343|pmc=4844272|pmid=27127403}}</ref> Humans began to exhibit evidence of [[behavioral modernity]] at least by about 100-70,000 years ago<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Henshilwood | first1 = C. S. | last2 = d'Errico | first2 = F. | last3 = Yates | first3 = R. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = Z. | last5 = Tribolo | first5 = C. | last6 = Duller | first6 = G. A. T. | last7 = Mercier | first7 = N. | last8 = Sealy | first8 = J. C. | last9 = Valladas | first9 = H. | last10 = Watts | first10 = I. | last11 = Wintle | first11 = A. G. | year = 2002 | title = Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa | url = | journal = Science | volume = 295 | issue = 5558| pages = 1278–1280 | doi=10.1126/science.1067575 | pmid=11786608| bibcode = 2002Sci...295.1278H }}</ref><ref name="Backwell">{{cite journal | author = Backwell L, d'Errico F, Wadley L | year = 2008 | title = Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa | url = | journal = Journal of Archaeological Science | volume = 35 | issue = | pages = 1566–1580 | doi = 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006 }}</ref><ref name="McBrearty Brooks 2000">{{cite journal|last1=McBrearty|first1=Sally|last2=Brooks|first2=Allison|date=2000|title=The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=39|issue=5|pages=453–563|doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0435|pmid=11102266}}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood Marean 2003">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood|first1=Christopher|last2=Marean|first2=Curtis|date=2003|title=The Origin of Modern Human Behavior: Critique of the Models and Their Test Implications|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=44|issue=5|pages=627–651|doi=10.1086/377665}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Brown|first1=Kyle S. |last2=Marean| first2=Curtis W. |last3=Herries |first3=Andy I.R. |last4=Jacobs |first4=Zenobia |last5=Tribolo |first5=Chantal |last6=Braun |first6=David |last7=Roberts |first7=David L. |last8=Meyer |first8=Michael C. |author9=Bernatchez, J. |date=14 August 2009 |title=Fire as an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans| journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5942 |pages=859–862 |doi=10.1126/science.1175028 |pmid=19679810|bibcode=2009Sci...325..859B }}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2011">{{cite journal | author = Henshilwood Christopher S | display-authors = etal | year = 2011 | title = A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa | url = | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = | pages = 219–222 | doi = 10.1126/science.1211535 }}</ref> and (according to recent evidence) as far back as around 300,000 years ago, in the [[Middle Stone Age]],<ref name="Brooks">{{Cite journal|title=Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6384|pages=90–94|year=2018|doi = 10.1126/science.aao2646|pmid=29545508|vauthors=Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB|bibcode=2018Sci...360...90B}}</ref><ref name="The Atlantic-555674">{{cite news |last=Yong |first=Ed |authorlink=Ed Yong |title=A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/03/a-deeper-origin-of-complex-human-cultures/555674/ |date=15 March 2018 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |accessdate=15 March 2018 }}</ref><ref name="SahlePLOS1">{{Cite journal |last1=Sahle |first1=Y. |last2=Hutchings |first2=W. K. |last3=Braun |first3=D. R. |last4=Sealy |first4=J. C. |last5=Morgan |first5=L. E. |last6=Negash |first6=A. |last7=Atnafu |first7=B. |editor1-last=Petraglia |editor1-first=Michael D |title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092 |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e78092 |year=2013 |pmid=24236011 |pmc=3827237 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S }}</ref> (with some features of behavioral modernity possibly beginning earlier, and possibly in parallel with evolutionary brain globularization in ''H. sapiens''). In several [[Early human migrations|waves of migration]], ''H. sapiens'' ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world.<ref name="evolutionthe1st4billionyears">{{cite book |title=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |author=McHenry, H.M |chapter=Human Evolution |editor1=Michael Ruse |editor2=Joseph Travis |year=2009 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-03175-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionfirstfo00mich/page/265 265] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionfirstfo00mich/page/265 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neubauer|first=Simon|last2=Hublin|first2=Jean-Jacques|last3=Gunz|first3=Philipp|date=1 January 2018|title=The evolution of modern human brain shape|url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/1/eaao5961|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=eaao5961|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aao5961|issn=2375-2548}}</ref>
+Early hominins—particularly the [[australopithecine]]s, whose brains and anatomy are in many ways more similar to ancestral non-human [[ape]]s—are less often referred to as "human" than hominins of the genus ''[[Homo]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tattersall Ian |author2=Schwartz Jeffrey |year=2009 |title=Evolution of the Genus Homo |url= |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=37 |issue= 1|pages=67–92 |doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.031208.100202|bibcode=2009AREPS..37...67T }}</ref> Several of these hominins [[Control of fire by early humans|used fire]], [[Early human migrations|occupied much of Eurasia]], and the lineage that gave rise to ''Homo sapiens'' is thought to have diverged in Africa around 500,000 years ago, with the earliest fossil evidence of evidence of early ''Homo sapiens'' appearing (also in Africa) around 300,000 years ago.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Scerri|first=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Thomas|first2=Mark G.|last3=Manica|first3=Andrea|last4=Gunz|first4=Philipp|last5=Stock|first5=Jay T.|last6=Stringer|first6=Chris|last7=Grove|first7=Matt|last8=Groucutt|first8=Huw S.|last9=Timmermann|first9=Axel|last10=Rightmire|first10=G. Philip|last11=d’Errico|first11=Francesco|date=1 August 2018|title=Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?|url=https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(18)30117-4|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|language=English|volume=33|issue=8|pages=582–594|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005|issn=0169-5347|pmid=30007846|pmc=6092560}}</ref> The oldest early ''H. sapiens'' fossils were found in [[Jebel Irhoud]], [[Morocco]] dating to about 315,000 years ago.<ref name="EA-20190320">{{cite news |author=University of Huddersfield |title=Researchers shed new light on the origins of modern humans – The work, published in Nature, confirms a dispersal of Homo sapiens from southern to eastern Africa immediately preceded the out-of-Africa migration |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-03/uoh-nrs032019.php |date=20 March 2019 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |access-date=23 March 2019 |author-link=University of Huddersfield }}</ref><ref name="SR-20190318">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rito T, Vieira D, Silva M, Conde-Sousa E, Pereira L, Mellars P, Richards MB, Soares P | display-authors = 6 | title = A dispersal of Homo sapiens from southern to eastern Africa immediately preceded the out-of-Africa migration | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 4728 | date = March 2019 | pmid = 30894612 | pmc = 6426877 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-019-41176-3 | bibcode = 2019NatSR...9.4728R }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inverse.com/article/39908-ancient-human-evolution-science|title=Everything We Learned in One Year About Thousands of Years of Human Evolution|last=Sloat|first=Sarah|date=4 January 2018|website=Inverse|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180126012411/https://www.inverse.com/article/39908-ancient-human-evolution-science|archivedate=26 January 2018|url-status=live|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Antón, Susan C. |author2=Swisher III, Carl C. |year=2004 |title=Early Dispersals of homo from Africa |url= |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=33 |issue= |pages=271–96 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.144024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Trinkaus Erik |year=2005 |title=Early Modern Humans |url= |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=34 |issue= |pages=207–30 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.030905.154913}}</ref> Discovered in 1967, Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern [[Ethiopia]] is, {{as of|2017|lc=y}}<!-- might be justified to use 2020, but I'm using date of latest cited source -->, the oldest [[anatomically modern Homo sapiens]] skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 ka).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hammond|first=Ashley S.|last2=Royer|first2=Danielle F.|last3=Fleagle|first3=John G.|date=Jul 2017|title=The Omo-Kibish I pelvis|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=108|pages=199–219|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004|issn=1095-8606|pmid=28552208}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleagle|first=John G.|last2=Brown|first2=Francis H.|last3=McDougall|first3=Ian|date=17 February 2005|title=Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=433|issue=7027|pages=733–736|doi=10.1038/nature03258|issn=1476-4687|pmid=15716951}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=López|first=Saioa|last2=van Dorp|first2=Lucy|last3=Hellenthal|first3=Garrett|date=2016-04-21|title=Human Dispersal Out of Africa: A Lasting Debate|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4844272/|journal=Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online|volume=11|issue=Suppl 2|pages=57–68|doi=10.4137/EBO.S33489|issn=1176-9343|pmc=4844272|pmid=27127403}}</ref> Humans began to exhibit evidence of [[behavioral modernity]] at least by about 100-70,000 years ago<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Henshilwood | first1 = C. S. | last2 = d'Errico | first2 = F. | last3 = Yates | first3 = R. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = Z. | last5 = Tribolo | first5 = C. | last6 = Duller | first6 = G. A. T. | last7 = Mercier | first7 = N. | last8 = Sealy | first8 = J. C. | last9 = Valladas | first9 = H. | last10 = Watts | first10 = I. | last11 = Wintle | first11 = A. G. | year = 2002 | title = Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa | url = | journal = Science | volume = 295 | issue = 5558| pages = 1278–1280 | doi=10.1126/science.1067575 | pmid=11786608| bibcode = 2002Sci...295.1278H }}</ref><ref name="Backwell">{{cite journal | author = Backwell L, d'Errico F, Wadley L | year = 2008 | title = Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa | url = | journal = Journal of Archaeological Science | volume = 35 | issue = | pages = 1566–1580 | doi = 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006 }}</ref><ref name="McBrearty Brooks 2000">{{cite journal|last1=McBrearty|first1=Sally|last2=Brooks|first2=Allison|date=2000|title=The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior|journal=Journal of Human Evolution|volume=39|issue=5|pages=453–563|doi=10.1006/jhev.2000.0435|pmid=11102266}}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood Marean 2003">{{cite journal|last1=Henshilwood|first1=Christopher|last2=Marean|first2=Curtis|date=2003|title=The Origin of Modern Human Behavior: Critique of the Models and Their Test Implications|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=44|issue=5|pages=627–651|doi=10.1086/377665}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Brown|first1=Kyle S. |last2=Marean| first2=Curtis W. |last3=Herries |first3=Andy I.R. |last4=Jacobs |first4=Zenobia |last5=Tribolo |first5=Chantal |last6=Braun |first6=David |last7=Roberts |first7=David L. |last8=Meyer |first8=Michael C. |author9=Bernatchez, J. |date=14 August 2009 |title=Fire as an Engineering Tool of Early Modern Humans| journal=Science |volume=325 |issue=5942 |pages=859–862 |doi=10.1126/science.1175028 |pmid=19679810|bibcode=2009Sci...325..859B }}</ref><ref name="Henshilwood et al. 2011">{{cite journal | author = Henshilwood Christopher S | display-authors = etal | year = 2011 | title = A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa | url = | journal = Science | volume = 334 | issue = | pages = 219–222 | doi = 10.1126/science.1211535 }}</ref> and (according to recent evidence) as far back as around 300,000 years ago, in the [[Middle Stone Age]],<ref name="Brooks">{{Cite journal|title=Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6384|pages=90–94|year=2018|doi = 10.1126/science.aao2646|pmid=29545508|vauthors=Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d'Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB|bibcode=2018Sci...360...90B}}</ref><ref name="The Atlantic-555674">{{cite news |last=Yong |first=Ed |authorlink=Ed Yong |title=A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity - New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species. |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/03/a-deeper-origin-of-complex-human-cultures/555674/ |date=15 March 2018 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |accessdate=15 March 2018 }}</ref><ref name="SahlePLOS1">{{Cite journal |last1=Sahle |first1=Y. |last2=Hutchings |first2=W. K. |last3=Braun |first3=D. R. |last4=Sealy |first4=J. C. |last5=Morgan |first5=L. E. |last6=Negash |first6=A. |last7=Atnafu |first7=B. |editor1-last=Petraglia |editor1-first=Michael D |title=Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0078092 |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=e78092 |year=2013 |pmid=24236011 |pmc=3827237 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...878092S }}</ref> (with some features of behavioral modernity possibly beginning earlier, and possibly in parallel with evolutionary brain globularization in ''H. sapiens''). In several [[Early human migrations|waves of migration]], ''H. sapiens'' ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world.<ref name="evolutionthe1st4billionyears">{{cite book |title=Evolution: The First Four Billion Years |author=McHenry, H.M |chapter=Human Evolution |editor1=Michael Ruse |editor2=Joseph Travis |year=2009 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-03175-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evolutionfirstfo00mich/page/265 265] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/evolutionfirstfo00mich/page/265 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Neubauer|first=Simon|last2=Hublin|first2=Jean-Jacques|last3=Gunz|first3=Philipp|date=1 January 2018|title=The evolution of modern human brain shape|url=https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/1/eaao5961|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=4|issue=1|pages=eaao5961|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aao5961|issn=2375-2548}}</ref>
 The spread of the [[world population|large and increasing population]] of humans has profoundly [[Holocene extinction|affected]] much of the biosphere and millions of species worldwide. Advantages that explain this evolutionary success include a [[encephalization|larger brain]] with a well-developed [[neocortex]], [[prefrontal cortex]] and [[temporal lobe]]s, which enable advanced abstract [[reasoning]], [[language]], [[problem solving]], [[sociality]], and culture through social learning. Humans use tools more frequently and effectively than any other animal: they are the only extant species to build fires, [[cooking|cook food]], [[clothing|clothe]] themselves, and create and use numerous other [[technology|technologies]] and [[art]]s.

Revision as of 03:07, 9 February 2020

Etymology and definition

History

Evolution and range

Evidence from molecular biology

Evidence from the fossil record

Anatomical adaptations

Rise of Homo sapiens

Transition to modernity

Habitat and population

Biology

Anatomy and physiology

Genetics

Life cycle

Diet

Biological variation

Structure of variation

Psychology

Sleep and dreaming

Consciousness and thought

Motivation and emotion

Sexuality and love

Behavior

Language

Gender roles

Kinship

Ethnicity

Society, government, and politics

Trade and economics

War

Material culture and technology

Body culture

Philosophy and self-reflection

Religion and spirituality

Art, music, and literature

Science

See also

References

Further reading

External links