User:Nwbeeson/sandbox/DNA

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics. For other uses, see Nwbeeson/sandbox/DNA (disambiguation).

double helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid (

lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), they are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix
.

The two DNA strands are termed

number 1, consists of approximately 220 million base pairs[5]
and would be 85 mm long if straightened.

In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together.

double helix. The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A polymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called a polynucleotide.[8]

The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues.[9] The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix, the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime (5′) and three prime (3′), with the 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA.[7]

A section of DNA. The bases lie horizontally between the two spiraling strands.[10] (animated version).

The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces:

aromatic nucleobases.[11] In the aqueous environment of the cell, the conjugated π bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA molecule, minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. It was represented by A-T base pairs and G-C base pairs.[12][13]

Nucleobase classification

The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines, A and G, being fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds, and the pyrimidines, the six-membered rings C and T.[7] A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology.[14]

Uracil is not usually found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine. However, in several bacteriophages, Bacillus subtilis bacteriophages PBS1 and PBS2 and Yersinia bacteriophage piR1-37, thymine has been replaced by uracil.[15] Another phage - Staphylococcal phage S6 - has been identified with a genome where thymine has been replaced by uracil.[16]

Base J (beta-d-glucopyranosyloxymethyluracil), a modified form of uracil, is also found in several organisms: the flagellates Diplonema and Euglena, and all the kinetoplastid genera.[17] Biosynthesis of J occurs in two steps: in the first step, a specific thymidine in DNA is converted into hydroxymethyldeoxyuridine; in the second, HOMedU is glycosylated to form J.[18] Proteins that bind specifically to this base have been identified.[19][20][21] These proteins appear to be distant relatives of the Tet1 oncogene that is involved in the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia.[22] J appears to act as a termination signal for RNA polymerase II.[23][24]

DNA major and minor grooves. The later is a binding site for the Hoechst stain dye 33258.

Grooves

Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. One groove, the major groove, is 22 Å wide and the other, the minor groove, is 12 Å wide.[25] The width of the major groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove.[26] This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below), but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in size that would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form.

Base pairing

Further information: Base pair

In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. Here, purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix is called a base pair. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature.[27] As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms.[28]

These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as

transcription and DNA replication.[29]

From left to right, the structures of A, B and Z DNA

Alternative DNA structures

Further information:
DNA structure

DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although, only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms.[9] The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions, and the presence of polyamines in solution.[30]

The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns—and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson transforms that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA.[31][32] An alternative analysis was then proposed by Wilkins et al., in 1953, for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions.[33] In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double-helix.[34]

Although the B-DNA form is most common under the conditions found in cells,

paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder.[37][38]

Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes.[39][40] Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form.[41] These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription.[42]

Alternative DNA chemistry

For many years

bacterium GFAJ-1, was announced,[43][43][44] though the research was disputed,[45][46] and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules.[47]

Quadruplex structures

Further information: G-quadruplex

At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes.[48] These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected.[49] In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence.[50]

DNA quadruplex formed by telomere repeats. The looped conformation of the DNA backbone is very different from the typical DNA helix. The green spheres in the center represent potassium ions.[51]

These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases form a flat plate and these flat four-base units then stack on top of each other, to form a stable G-quadruplex structure.[52] These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit.[53] Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure.

In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins.[54] At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop.[52]

[55] DNA damages that are naturally occurring, due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species, the hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging.[56][57][58]

Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called

teratogen.[60] Others such as benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication.[61] Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells.[62]

Biological functions

Location of eukaryote nuclear DNA within the chromosomes.

DNA usually occurs as linear

protein sequence in a process called translation
, which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In alternative fashion, a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here the focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome.

Genes and genomes

Further information:
Noncoding DNA

Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called

promoters and enhancers
, which control transcription of the open reading frame.

In many

C-value enigma".[66] However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression.[67]

T7 RNA polymerase (blue) producing an mRNA (green) from a DNA template (orange).[68]

Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes.[49][69] An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation.[70] These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence.[71]

Transcription and translation

Further information:
Transcription (genetics), and Protein biosynthesis

A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code. The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT).

In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4 Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer;[72] it may provide nutrients;[73] and it may act as a buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics.[74] Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm;[75] it may contribute to biofilm formation;[76] and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress.[77] Cell-free fetal DNA is found in the blood of the mother, and can be sequenced to determine a great deal of information about the developing fetus.

Interactions with proteins

All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These

protein interactions
can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important.

DNA-binding proteins

Further information: DNA-binding protein

Ligases are particularly important in

replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination.[78]

Topoisomerases and helicases

Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA. Some of these enzymes work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break.[79] Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix.[80] Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription.[29]

Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands.[81] These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases.

Polymerases

hydroxyl group at the end of the growing polynucleotide chain. As a consequence, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction.[82] In the active site
of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use.

In DNA replication, DNA-dependent DNA polymerases make copies of DNA polynucleotide chains. To preserve biological information, it is essential that the sequence of bases in each copy are precisely complementary to the sequence of bases in the template strand. Many DNA polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed.[83] In most organisms, DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases.[84]

RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres.[48][85] Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure.[49]

Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits.[86]

Genetic recombination

RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes.[89] However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution.[90] Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old,[91] but these claims are controversial.[92][93]

Building blocks of DNA (

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar cosmic dust and gas clouds.[97]

Uses in technology

Genetic engineering

Further information: Molecular biology, Nucleic acid methods, and Genetic engineering

Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as

phenol-chloroform extraction, and to manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector.[98] The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research,[99] or be grown in agriculture.[100][101]

DNA profiling

Further information: DNA profiling

short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA.[102] However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people.[103] DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys,[104] and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case.[105]

The development of forensic science and the ability to now obtain genetic matching on minute samples of blood, skin, saliva, or hair has led to re-examining many cases. Evidence can now be uncovered that was scientifically impossible at the time of the original examination. Combined with the removal of the double jeopardy law in some places, this can allow cases to be reopened where prior trials have failed to produce sufficient evidence to convince a jury. People charged with serious crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for matching purposes. The most obvious defence to DNA matches obtained forensically is to claim that cross-contamination of evidence has occurred. This has resulted in meticulous strict handling procedures with new cases of serious crime. DNA profiling is also used successfully to positively identify victims of mass casualty incidents,[106] bodies or body parts in serious accidents, and individual victims in mass war graves, via matching to family members.

DNA profiling is also used in DNA paternity testing to determine if someone is the biological parent or grandparent of a child with the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. Normal DNA sequencing methods happen after birth but there are new methods to test paternity while a mother is still pregnant.[107]

DNA enzymes or catalytic DNA

Further information: Deoxyribozyme

Deoxyribozymes, also called DNAzymes or catalytic DNA, are first discovered in 1994.[108] They are mostly single stranded DNA sequences isolated from a large pool of random DNA sequences through a combinatorial approach called in vitro selection or systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). DNAzymes catalyze variety of chemical reactions including RNA-DNA cleavage, RNA-DNA ligation, amino acids phosphorylation-dephosphorylation, carbon-carbon bond formation, and etc. DNAzymes can enhance catalytic rate of chemical reactions up to 100,000,000,000-fold over the uncatalyzed reaction.[109] The most extensively studied class of DNAzymes is RNA-cleaving types which have been used to detect different metal ions and designing therapeutic agents. Several metal-specific DNAzymes have been reported including the GR-5 DNAzyme (lead-specific),[110] the CA1-3 DNAzymes (copper-specific),[111] the 39E DNAzyme (uranyl-specific) and the NaA43 DNAzyme (sodium-specific).[112] The NaA43 DNAzyme, which is reported to be more than 10,000-fold selective for sodium over other metal ions, was used to make a real-time sodium sensor in living cells.

Bioinformatics

Further information: Bioinformatics

string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory.[113] String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides.[114] The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function.[115] Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally.[116]
Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.

DNA nanotechnology

atomic force microscopy at right. DNA nanotechnology is the field that seeks to design nanoscale structures using the molecular recognition properties of DNA molecules. Image from Strong, 2004
.
Further information: DNA nanotechnology

DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties.[117] DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based and using the DNA origami method) and three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra.[118] Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated,[119] and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins.[120]

History and anthropology

Further information: Phylogenetics and Genetic genealogy

Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information, and, by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny.[121] This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology; For example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.[122][123]

Information storage

Main article: DNA digital data storage

In a paper published in Nature in January 2013, scientists from the European Bioinformatics Institute and Agilent Technologies proposed a mechanism to use DNA's ability to code information as a means of digital data storage. The group was able to encode 739 kilobytes of data into DNA code, synthesize the actual DNA, then sequence the DNA and decode the information back to its original form, with a reported 100% accuracy. The encoded information consisted of text files and audio files. A prior experiment was published in August 2012. It was conducted by researchers at Harvard University, where the text of a 54,000-word book was encoded in DNA.[124][125]

Moreover, in living cells, the storage can be turned active by enzymes. Light-gated protein domains fused to DNA processing enzymes are suitable for that task in vitro.[126][127] Fluorescent exonucleases can transmit the output according to the nucleotide they have read.[128]

History of DNA research

Further information: History of molecular biology
James Watson and Francis Crick (right), co-originators of the double-helix model, with Maclyn McCarty (left).
Pencil sketch of the DNA double helix by Francis Crick in 1953

DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein".[129][130] In 1878, Albrecht Kossel isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases.[131][132] In 1919, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar, and phosphate nucleotide unit.[133] Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups. Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1937, William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure.[134]

In 1927,

genetic material of the T2 phage.[140]

In 1953,

X-ray diffraction image (labeled as "Photo 51")[141] taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling
in May 1952, and the information that the DNA bases are paired.

Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature.[142] Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model;[32][143] this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the prior two pages of Nature.[33] In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[144] Nobel Prizes are awarded only to living recipients. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.[145]

In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the central dogma of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis".[146] Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment.[147] Further work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code.[148] These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.

See also

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  66. ^ Cite error: The named reference cvalue” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  67. ^ Cite error: The named reference IDFuncEle” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  68. ^ Cite error: The named reference rcsborg02” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  69. ^ Cite error: The named reference rhcentro” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  70. ^ Cite error: The named reference fossils” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  71. ^ Cite error: The named reference aeons” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  72. doi:10.1002/bies.20604
    .
  73. doi:10.1128/JB.183.21.6288-6293.2001
    .
  74. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1000213.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
    )
  75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07267.x
    .
  76. doi:10.1126/science.295.5559.1487
    .
  77. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051905.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
    )
  78. PMID 11058099
    .
  79. PMID 11395412
    .
  80. ^ Cite error: The named reference structopo” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  81. ^ Cite error: The named reference motifmeck” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  82. PMID 7592405
    .
  83. ^ Cite error: The named reference eupoly” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  84. ^ Cite error: The named reference replicom” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  85. ^ Cite error: The named reference revertrans” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  86. ^ Cite error: The named reference comeugene” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  87. ^ Cite error: The named reference preorg” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  88. ^ Cite error: The named reference ribocopi” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  89. ^ Cite error: The named reference optisize” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  90. ^ Cite error: The named reference decay” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  91. ^ Cite error: The named reference halotol” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  92. ^ Cite error: The named reference geoanc” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  93. ^ Cite error: The named reference curimod” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  94. ^ Cite error: The named reference Callahan” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  95. ^ Cite error: The named reference Steigerwald” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  96. ^ Cite error: The named reference DNA” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  97. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20150303” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  98. ^ Cite error: The named reference conhybvir” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  99. ^ Cite error: The named reference transmod” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  100. ^ Cite error: The named reference multien” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  101. ^ Cite error: The named reference agribio” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  102. ^ Cite error: The named reference likeid” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  103. ^ Cite error: The named reference intermix” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  104. ^ Cite error: The named reference fingerdna” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  105. ^ Cite error: The named reference forensic” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  106. ^ Cite error: The named reference masfat” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  107. ^ Cite error: The named reference patblood” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  108. ^ Cite error: The named reference Breaker 223–229” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  109. ^ Cite error: The named reference catseqspe” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  110. PMID 9383394
    .
  111. ^ Cite error: The named reference ivssc” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  112. ^ Cite error: The named reference ivsss” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  113. ^ Cite error: The named reference tmla” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  114. ^ Cite error: The named reference astscscb” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  115. ^ Cite error: The named reference pipm” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  116. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mount” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  117. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnsp” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  118. ^ Cite error: The named reference golassan” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  119. ^ Cite error: The named reference dnangl” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  120. ^ Cite error: The named reference amwd” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  121. ^ Cite error: The named reference dbtl” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  122. ^ Cite error: The named reference ltoisr” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  123. ^ Cite error: The named reference fascistory” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  124. ^ Cite error: The named reference tphclmiss” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  125. ^ Cite error: The named reference sddd” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  126. ^ Cite error: The named reference danaack” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  127. ^ Cite error: The named reference etfdl” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  128. ^ Cite error: The named reference mhidsva” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  129. ^ Cite error: The named reference miescher” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  130. ^ Cite error: The named reference dahmdis” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  131. ^ Cite error: The named reference list” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  132. ^ Cite error: The named reference Yale_Jones_1953” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  133. ^ Cite error: The named reference syna” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  134. ^ Cite error: The named reference list02” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  135. ^ Cite error: The named reference list03” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  136. ^ Cite error: The named reference Soyfer” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  137. ^ Cite error: The named reference spt” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  138. ^ Cite error: The named reference bgtng” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  139. ^ Cite error: The named reference Proof” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  140. ^ Cite error: The named reference vpna” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  141. ^ Cite error: The named reference rosalind” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  142. ^ Nature Archives Double Helix of DNA: 50 Years
  143. ^ Cite error: The named reference image” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  144. ^ Cite error: The named reference nobelWCW” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  145. ^ Cite error: The named reference maddox” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  146. ^ Cite error: The named reference crick01” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  147. ^ Cite error: The named reference meselson” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  148. ^ Cite error: The named reference nobel68” was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: A list-defined reference named "MBC" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "AdamsDNA" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "NYT-20150718-rn" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "AGCI-2015" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "RusGenet" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Mashaghi" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Saenger" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "SuperCoil" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Mandelkern" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Swarbreck" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "IUPAC" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsb" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Yakovchuk2006" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "tropp" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "carr" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "verma" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "takano" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Pabo1984" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "tolksdrf" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "breslauer" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "hlmnn" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "cheruku" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "qmul" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "httnhfr" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "mnroe" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "mklwsk" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Johnsholm" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "lambhorv" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "benlke" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "basustein" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "frankling" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "chndrskrn" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Baianu01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Bagchi" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Baianu02" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Sundaralingam" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "shakked" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "kochnolte" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "kimrich" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "allaars" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Nature" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "tesman" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rutgersedu" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "parklee" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "comfield" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "seeNCman" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Rosen01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "klose" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "bird01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "walshxu" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "krcnis" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rrbw" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "vliegen" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsborg01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "douki" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "delatour" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "beck01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "valerie" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Weinberg" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "alberts" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "payne" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "hoeijmakers" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "freitas" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "fergu" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "bunde" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "jeffs" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "brana" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "venterseq" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "thanbi" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "wolfsguide" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "cvalue" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "IDFuncEle" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsborg02" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rhcentro" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "fossils" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "aeons" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "replica" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Tani_2010" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "propro" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "nucleoasso" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "structnuc" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "transhistone" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "nucassem" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "archbind" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "assemnucstruct" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "reppro" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsborg03" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "mediatortrans" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "bioconco" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "globtransreg" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsborg04" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "giorestric" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "structopo" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "motifmeck" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "eupoly" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "replicom" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "revertrans" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "comeugene" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rcsborg05" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "regmamcell" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "lerchInte" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "JeggoInsite" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "mamradpro" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "clarimech" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "resolva" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "autogenerated1" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "preorg" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "ribocopi" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "optisize" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "decay" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "halotol" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "geoanc" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "curimod" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Callahan" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Steigerwald" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "DNA" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "NASA-20150303" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "conhybvir" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "transmod" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "multien" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "agribio" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "likeid" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "intermix" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "fingerdna" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "forensic" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "masfat" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "patblood" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "catseqspe" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "ivssc" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "ivsss" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "tmla" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "astscscb" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "pipm" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Mount" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "cnsp" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "golassan" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "dnangl" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "amwd" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "dbtl" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "ltoisr" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "fascistory" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "tphclmiss" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "sddd" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "danaack" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "etfdl" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "mhidsva" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "miescher" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "dahmdis" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "list" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Yale_Jones_1953" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "syna" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "list02" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "list03" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Soyfer" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "spt" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "bgtng" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "Proof" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "vpna" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "rosalind" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "image" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "nobelWCW" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "maddox" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "crick01" is not used in the content (see the help page).
Cite error: A list-defined reference named "meselson" is not used in the content (see the help page).

Cite error: A list-defined reference named "nobel68" is not used in the content (see the help page).

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