This is a list of European species extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE)[A] and continues to the present day.[1]
Most recent remains dated to 3040-1840 BCE. A painting on the Ancient Egyptian tomb of Rekhmire (1470-1445 BCE) depicting exotic animals brought to Egypt as tribute by foreign peoples, has been interpreted by some authors as a depiction of a dwarf elephant.[4]
Tavolara, has been hypothesised from the description of unknown mammals by later Sardinian authors; however, this interpretation remains dubious owing to anatomical discrepancies.[12]
Carpathian Basin, the Middle Holocene in the Middle Urals,[13] and 1220 BCE in the Southern Urals.[2] This species avoids human disturbance strictly and is considered an excellent indicator of the health of steppe ecosystems, as a result.[14]
Most recent remains dated to 9650 BCE in the Ponto-Caspian Region, 9550 BCE in Boreal Europe, 8750 BCE in northern Central Europe, 8250 BCE in the Franco-Cantabrian region, 6050 BCE in Northwestern Germany, 5850 BCE[2] in the Carpathian Basin, and Late Holocene in the Urals.[14]
Most recent remains at Mochlos dated to the Bronze Age. It was outcompeted and replaced by the house mouse accidentally introduced by sailors from the eastern Mediterranean.[15]
Most recent remains dated to 348 BCE - 283 CE.[9][B]
Balearic giant shrew
Nesiotites hidalgo
Gymnesian Islands, Spain
Most recent remains at Alcúdia dated to 3030-2690 BCE, coinding with the period of initial human settlement in the island. It could have succumbed to diseases carried by introduced commensal mammals.[17]
1st millennium BCE, where it can be differenciated from the leopard by the shape of its paws and unretracted claws. Possibly survived in Armenia until the Middle Ages before disappearing due to hunting.[21]
Hellenistic and Roman sites are confidently attributed to imports from Asia and Africa.[22]
In the Caucasus, the leopard was hunted to extinction from most of the region by the 1950s or 1960s,[26] but still survives in small areas of the North Caucasus, southern Armenia, and Azerbaijan.[27] These leopards belong to the Persian subspecies Panthera pardus tulliana, which also occurs in Anatolia.[28] In 1889 an Anatolian leopard was killed in the Greek island of Samos after swimming from Asia. Local folklore suggests that similar events have happened in the island at different times in history.[29]
Present permanently in the Caucasus region and along the
Imeretia at the beginning of the 17th century, Armenia in the early 19th century, eastern Georgia in 1936,[24] and Azerbaijan's Talysh Mountains in 1966. Last three were all vagrants intruding after tigers stopped breeding in the respective area.[26]
Exterminated by livestock farmers. The last confirmed individual was killed in 1924 near Bellolampo; unconfirmed killings near Palermo were reported between 1935 and 1938, and unconfirmed sightings between 1960 and 1970.[30]
Most recent remains dated to 7050-6550 BCE in Riparo Fredian, Italy (with doubts)[31] and Les Coves de Santa Maira, Spain.[32] Claims of 21st century presence of dhole in the Caucasus are erroneous.[33]
Most recent remains in Corsica dated to 9910-9710 BCE and Sardinia to 9531-9196 BCE, roughly coinciding with modern human colonization of the islands.[34]
Martens, polecats, otters, badgers, and weasels (family Mustelidae)
Known from a single skeleton found in a cave with no stratigraphical context but estimated to be Late Pleistocene or early Holocene,[35] 68050-8050 BCE.[36]
Western Europe to western Siberia,[37] Anatolia?[38]
Historical sources record
Cossack word tarpan became a popular name for European wild horses in the 19th century, though it is sometimes limited to horses from central and eastern Europe.[42]
Gotland pony. However, genetic and historical evidence indicate that they are typical domestic horses.[42]
Remains dated to 8050 BCE in Western Europe, 3550 BCE in Italy,[2] 3300-2700 BCE in Karanovo, Bulgaria; 3200-2500 BCE in Los Millares, Spain; 2050 BCE in southern Central Europe,[2] and 1500-500 BCE in Keti, Armenia. Questionable remains in Didi-gora, Georgia dated to 1075 BCE. The hydruntine inhabited open steppe habitat that became rarer and fragmented in the Holocene, making it more vulnerable to human exploitation.[43]
Ural rivers until the 18th or 19th century, when it was extirpated due to increasing hunting with firearms and seizure of waterholes for livestock use. 18th century records from Voronezh, Russia are considered unreliable.[45] It was first reintroduced to Askania-Nova, Ukraine in 1950.[46] In 2020 Rewilding Europe released kulan in the Tarutyne steppe next to the Danube Delta.[47] It has also announced plans to release kulan in Spain as proxy for the hydruntine.[48]
Possibly calved in the Mediterranean in ancient times.[49] All few confirmed individuals in Europe since 1999 were identified as vagrants from the North American population, and known calving areas in Africa appear to be depleted.[50]
Ijmuiden, Netherlands were dated to 550 CE.[52] A vagrant from the Pacific population dispersed over the Arctic Ocean and was seen in Europe in 2010.[53][54]
North Caucasus and the Transcaucasian coast of the Black Sea
Hunted to extinction by the beginning of the 20th century. The subspecies' validity is questioned because moose from Russia later colonized the North Caucasus naturally over the 20th century.[55]
Most recently dated to 8718 BCE in Teppa u Lupinu, Corsica and 5641–5075 BCE in Grotta Juntu, Sardinia. It survived the first human colonization of the islands, but became extinct when Neolithic peoples arrived.[34]
Locally extinct
Common name
Scientific name
Range
Comments
Pictures
Wapiti
Cervus canadensis
Northern Eurasia and North America
Survived into the early Holocene of Scania and (as the subspecies C. c. palmidactyloceros) in northern Italy, Switzerland, and possibly the French Alps while the temperate forest-adapted red deer replaced it in the rest of Europe. The dwarf subspecies C. c. tyrrhenicus existed in Capri after the post-glacial sea level rise.[58]
Cattle, goats, antelopes, and others (family Bovidae)
domestic cattle rearing. The subspecies was protected in the 1890s when it was limited to 442 animals in the area between the Belaya and Laba rivers. However an epizootic outbreak in 1919 reduced the animals to just 50, and the last individuals were poached in 1927.[59] The only captive animal, a male, lived in Germany between 1908 and 1925 and bred with females of the lowland wisent subspecies. As a result, several wisent populations carry its genes today.[60]
Most recent remains dated to 1130-1060 BCE near the
Western Russia. However this date was not calibrated and the remains could be older.[62] Recent calibrated dates include 9450 BCE in the Southern Urals, 8650 BCE in the Middle Urals, and 7550 BCE in Boreal Europe.[2]
Declined as a result of hunting, deforestation for
release them in the wild
as proxy for the aurochs.
European water buffalo
Bubalus murrensis
Central, eastern, and southeastern Europe
Most recent confirmed remains in
domestic water buffaloes and possible remains from the Neolithic of southeastern Europe (9000-7000 BCE) and Atlantic of Austria (7000-4000 BCE) suggest that the native European species of water buffalo survived into the Holocene.[67] In 2019, Rewilding Europe released domestic buffaloes in the Danube Delta as proxy for the European water buffalo.[68]
French Pyrenees as proxy for the Pyrenean ibex.[70]
Balearic Islands cave goat
Myotragus balearicus
Gymnesian Islands, Spain
Most recent remains dated to 3969-3759 BCE in Menorca, 3649-3379 BCE in Cabrera,[73] and 2830-2470 BCE in Mallorca. The timeframe allows to confidently exclude climate change as a reason for the extinction and blame it solely on the first human settlers to the islands.[74]
Extinct in the wild
Common name
Scientific name
Range
Comments
Pictures
Lowland wisent
Bison bonasus bonasus
Western Europe to southern Siberia
The last wild population in Poland's
Kavkazsky Nature Reserve in 1940, in the Caucasian wisent's former range, and allowed to roam free from 1946.[76] Other hybrid wisent herds were later established in the Carpathians, Ukraine, and Russia.[75]
Most recent remains in Sweden were dated to 7050 BCE.
Harjedalen, Sweden. Norwegians also introduced muskoxen to Svalbard in 1929, outside of the muskox's natural range, but this population died out by the 1970s.[79]
Originally hunted for its feathers, meat, fat, and oil; as it grew rare, also to supply collectionists. The last pair on the eastern Atlantic was killed on
Extirpated from Europe before 1650 as a result of habitat loss, climate change, and direct persecution.
Alpenzoo Innsbruck in Austria, and in 2011 a migratory population was established between southern Germany, Austria, and Tuscany. A second reintroduction project started in southern Spain in 2004.[85]
Described as different separated species including Bubo insularis, before being recognized as a subspecies of the Asian brown fish owl.[89] The most recent remains in Corsica date to 7433-7035 BCE. In Corsica-Sardinia it could have been locally adapted to prey on the Sardinian pika, disappearing after human arrival with it.[9]
Occasional winter visitor to southwest Andalusia until the end of the 19th century, with a single later record of a bird shot in Jerez de la Frontera in 1998.[90]
Most recent remains dated to 5295 BCE. The causes of extinction are presumed human-induced due to the lack of climatic changes at the time, such as the introduction of exotic predators like
Caspian Sea, Volga, Ural and Terek river drainages
Last recorded in the Ural in the 1960s.[107] All spawning grounds were lost after dams were built in the Volga, Ural, and Terek river drainages. The species continues to exist in captivity, from which it is released periodically in its native range. However, illegal fishing and hybridization with the introduced nelma remain threats to its survival.[108]
Disappeared around 1940 as a result of water pollution.[109] Though treated as a different species since about 1700, a genetic study in 2023 found the houting indistinguishable from the lavaret (Coregonus lavaretus) still extant in Great Britain, the Alpine area, and waterways it was introduced to.[110][111]
critically endangered species with low population density and disjunct distribution at the time. Besides difficulties in mixing and exchanging populations, the lice was threatened by the fact that lynxes taken to captive breeding centers were systematically deloused.[116][117]
Last collected in 1938. Both the Main and the Rhine were heavily polluted around that time and all local caddisfly species disappeared. Although other caddisflies returned after water quality improved, this species has not been recorded since.[124]
Last recorded in 1987 and deemed extinct as a result of water substraction, which peaked in 1988. However, fresh shells collected in 2009 may hint to its continued survival.[126]
Islets of Dyo Adelfoi, Megali Zafrano, Karavonisi, and Divounia, inbetween Astypalaia and Karpathos, Greece
Known only from subfossil shells in three islets and last recorded in the fourth in 1985. Likely declined due to habitat alteration caused by fire, tourism, and military construction.[132]
Not seen since its description in 1874. The species has been suggested to be the same as, or related to Drusia deshayesii from northern Morocco and Algeria, as well as an introduced species.[133]
Sea anemones, corals, and zoanthids (class Hexacorallia)
^The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
^A. corsicanus was originally applied to remains from Corsica and A. similis to Sardinia. It was later recognized that A. corsicanus existed in the early Pleistocene of both islands, and A. similis in the late Pleistocene-Holocene, as seen in Moncunill-Sole et al. (2016).
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