Austro-Hungarian Navy

Austro-Hungarian Navy
Kaiserliche und königliche Kriegsmarine (German) Császári és Királyi Haditengerészet (Hungarian)
Coat of arms of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
Active	1786–1867 (as the Austrian Navy) 1867–1918 (as the Austro-Hungarian Navy)
Country	Austria (1786–1867)  Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
Type	Navy
Role	Defence of Austria-Hungary's naval interests, its merchant marine, and its coastline
Size	1914: 20,000 personnel 4 dreadnoughts 9 pre-dreadnoughts 3 coastal defense ships 3 armored cruisers 2 torpedo cruisers 5 protected cruisers 2 scout cruisers 18 destroyers 25 high seas torpedo craft 29 coastal torpedo craft 6 submarines
Part of	Cretan Revolt of 1897-1898 Boxer Rebellion World War I
Commanders
Holy Roman Emperor (1786–1804)	Joseph II (1786–1790) Leopold II (1790–1792) Francis II (1792–1804)
Emperor of Austria (1804–1867)	Francis I (1804–1835) Ferdinand I (1835–1848) Franz Joseph I (1848–1867)
Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary (1867–1918)	Franz Joseph I (1867–1916) Karl I (1916–1918)
Commander-in-Chief of the Navy (German: Oberkommandant der Marine)	Hans Birch Dahlerup (February 1849 – August 1851) Franz Graf Wimpffen (August 1851 – September 1854) Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria (September 1854 – 1861) Ludwig von Fautz (1861 – March 1865) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff (March 1868 – April 1871) Friedrich von Pöck (April 1871 – November 1883) Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck (November 1883 – December 1897) Hermann von Spaun (December 1897 – October 1904) Rudolf Montecuccoli (October 1904 – February 1913) Anton Haus (February 1913 – February 1917) Maximilian Njegovan (April 1917 – February 1918)
Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet (German: Flottenkommandant)	Anton Haus (July 1914 – February 1917) Maximilian Njegovan (February 1917 – February 1918) Miklós Horthy (February 1918 – November 1918)
Chief of the Naval Section of the War Ministry (German: Chef der Marinesektion)	Ludwig von Fautz (March 1865 – April 1868) Wilhelm von Tegetthoff (March 1868 – April 1871) Friedrich von Pöck (October 1872 – November 1883) Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck (November 1883 – December 1897) Hermann von Spaun (December 1897 – October 1904) Rudolf Montecuccoli (October 1904 – February 1913) Anton Haus (February 1913 – February 1917) Karl Kailer von Kaltenfels (February 1917 – April 1917) Maximilian Njegovan (April 1917 – February 1918) Franz von Holub (February 1918 – November 1918)
Insignia
Naval ensign: 1786–1915

The Austro-Hungarian Navy or Imperial and Royal War Navy (

During most of World War I, the Allied Powers maintained the Otranto Barrage to bottle up the k.u.k. Kriegsmarine in the Adriatic Sea. Largely tasked with defending the Empire's 1,130 nautical miles (2,090 km; 1,300 mi) of coastline and 2,172.4 nautical miles (4,023.3 km; 2,500.0 mi) of island seaboard, the Navy chose to rely on its U-boats to attack Allied shipping rather than risk the destruction of its battleships, cruisers and other surface vessels. In June 1918, it attempted to break the Otranto Barrage with a large naval fleet, but the attack was called off after the battleship Szent István was sunk by an Italian torpedo boat on 10 June.

Five months later, with the Austro-Hungarian Empire facing collapse and defeat in the war, the Empire decided to transfer most of its navy to the newly declared State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on 31 October, effectively bringing the k.u.k. Kriegsmarine to an end. Three days later, the Empire's military authorities signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti, pulling the rapidly disintegrating empire out of the war. With the signing of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Trianon, Austria and Hungary became landlocked, and the Empire's most important ports of Trieste, Pola, Fiume and Ragusa became part of Italy and Yugoslavia. The k.u.k. Kriegsmarine's main ships were turned over to the Allies, who scrapped most of them in the 1920s during the era of naval disarmament.

The k.u.k. Kriegsmarine was not formally established until the 18th century, but its origins can be traced back to 1382, with the incorporation of Trieste into the Duchy of Austria. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Trieste became a maritime trade rival to the Republic of Venice, which occupied the Adriatic port city for intermittent periods between 1283 and 1372. Under the terms of the Peace of Turin in 1381, Venice renounced its claim to Trieste and the leading citizens of Trieste petitioned Leopold III, Duke of Austria, to make the port part of his domains. The agreement incorporating Trieste into the Duchy of Austria was signed at the castle of Graz on 30 September 1382.^[2][3]

While Austria had a port with the incorporation of Trieste, the city was granted a large degree of autonomy and successive Dukes of Austria paid little attention to the port or the idea of deploying a navy to protect it. Until the end of the 18th century, there were only limited attempts to establish an Austrian navy.

The next incursion Austria took into naval affairs occurred on the Danube River rather than at sea. During the Great Turkish War, Prince Eugene of Savoy employed a small flotilla of ships along the Danube to fight the Ottoman Empire, a practice which the House of Habsburg had employed previously during the 16th and 17th centuries to fight during Austria's numerous wars with the Ottomans. These river flotillas were largely manned by crews who came from Austria's coastal ports, and played a significant role in transporting troops across the Danube as well as denying Turkish control over the strategically important river.^[3] Significant portion of the Danube flotila were made up by Serb Šajkaši.

Austria remained without a proper seagoing navy, however, even after the need for one became apparent with the

Following the War of Spanish Succession, Austria's greatest outlet to the sea lay in the newly acquired Austrian Netherlands. While non-contiguous with the rest of Austria, the Austrian Netherlands lay within the boundaries of the Habsburg-dominated Holy Roman Empire. The territory also possessed numerous ports with easy access to the Atlantic Ocean, such as Ghent, Antwerp, Bruges and Ostend. However, the economy of the Austrian Netherlands was very disconnected from the rest of Austria, and most Habsburg rulers paid little attention to the province.^[9] Even Prince Eugene of Savoy, upon being appointed Governor-General of the Austrian Netherlands in June 1716, chose to remain in Vienna and direct policy through his chosen representative, Hercule-Louis Turinetti, marquis of Prié.^[10]

The success of the Dutch, British and French East India Companies throughout the 17th and early 18th centuries however led the merchants and shipowners of Ostend to want to establish direct commercial relations with the East Indies.^[11] In December 1722, Charles VI granted a 30-year charter to the Ostend Company to conduct trade with the East and West Indies, as well as Africa.^[12] The Ostend Company proved to be immensely profitable, and between 1724 and 1732, 21 company vessels were sent out to conduct trade in the Caribbean, Africa, and especially Asia. The most profitable voyages of the Ostend Company were to Canton, as rising tea prices resulted in high profits for ships conducting trade with China. Between 1719 and 1728, the Ostend Company transported 7 million pounds of tea from China, roughly half of the total amount brought to western Europe at the time, placing the company on par in the tea trade with the East India Company.^[13] The Ostend Company proved to be short lived however, as Charles VI suspended the charter of the company due to British diplomatic requests following the Treaty of Vienna, with the company ceasing operations in 1731.^[13][12]

Believing that "Navigation and commerce are the foremost pillars of the state,"

The Austrian East India Company marked the first attempt by Austria to establish overseas colonies. Within the next two years, Bolts established factories on the Malabar Coast, on the southeastern African coast at Delagoa Bay, and at the Nicobar Islands.^[12] These ventures ultimately failed however due to pressure from other colonial powers such as Portugal and Denmark-Norway, both of which forcefully evicted Bolts and his colonists from Africa and the Bay of Bengal respectively. Furthermore, the Austrian government did not wish to provoke other foreign powers after having to fight two major continental wars in the span of just 20 years. Vienna was also unwilling to lend much monetary support to either the company or towards the creation of a navy sufficiently large enough to protect its interests. This was partially because the Austrian government expected the ports of Trieste and Fiume to bear the cost of constructing and maintaining a fleet.^[12]

The Austrian Navy was finally established in 1786, with

The onset of the French Revolution in 1789 and the subsequent French Revolutionary Wars greatly changed the political face of Europe and resulted in the largest expansion of the Austrian Navy up to that point in time. Under Joseph II's successor, Leopold II, the Austrian Navy was formally located out of the port of Trieste. In 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio between France and Austria which ended the War of the First Coalition, Austria ceded to France the Austrian Netherlands and certain islands in the Mediterranean, including Corfu and the other Ionian Islands. The Republic of Venice and its territories were divided between the two states, and Austria received the city of Venice along with Istria and Dalmatia. Venice's naval forces and facilities were also handed over to Austria and became the basis of the formation of the future Austrian Navy.^[1]

The Treaty of Campo Formio resulted in Austria becoming the largest, and indeed the only, naval power in the Adriatic. Prior to the incorporation of the remnants of the Venetian navy, the Austrian Navy only consisted of the two cutters purchased in 1786, as well as several armed merchant vessels and gunboats. While Venice had suffered under French occupation, the ships Austria acquired from the city's annexation still allowed the Austrian Navy to grow to some 37 vessels by the start of the

At the end of the 18th century, several new regulations were also imposed regarding naval activity. These included instructing officers to refrain from excessive shouting when giving sailing commands, directing the captains of each ship in the navy not to conduct business transactions on their own behalf, and ordering surgeons to fumigate their ships several times a day in order to prevent the outbreak of any disease. The most notable regulation imposed directed naval officers to learn German. At the time, most Austrian naval officers were Italian or Spanish, and Italian remained the main language of the officer corps until 1848. This policy change however reflected Austria's desire to re-order its multi-ethnic Empire more towards the German states of the Holy Roman Empire.^[20]

On 17 March 1802, Archduke Charles of Austria, acting in his role as "Inspector General of the Navy", ordered the formation of the "Imperial and Royal Naval Cadet School" in Venice (German: k.u.k. Marine-Kadettenschule).^[21] This school eventually moved to Trieste in 1848 and changed its name to "Imperial and Royal Naval Academy" (German: k.u.k. Marine-Akademie).^[22]

Austria again fought against France during the

Believing his position as Holy Roman Emperor to be untenable, Francis abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire on 6 August 1806, and declared the Holy Roman Empire to be dissolved in the same declaration. This was a political move to impair the legitimacy of the Confederation of the Rhine. Two years earlier, as a reaction to Napoleon making himself an Emperor of the French, Francis had raised Austria to the status of an empire. Hence, after 1806, he reigned as Francis I, Emperor of Austria.^[23] This move meant that the naval forces under the banner of the Holy Roman Empire were now reconstituted as solely being a part of the Austrian Navy.^[24]

Three years later Austria again declared war on France, beginning the

Following the Congress of Vienna and the 1815 Treaty of Paris, Austria's coastline was restored. Under the conditions of the Congress of Vienna, the former Austrian Netherlands were transferred to the newly created United Kingdom of the Netherlands, while Austria received Lombardy-Venetia as compensation. These territorial changes gave Austria five ships of the line, two frigates, one corvette, and several smaller ships which had been left in Venice by the French during the Napoleonic Wars. The decades of warfare Austria had participated in since 1789 however had left the Empire on the verge of bankruptcy, and most of these ships were sold or abandoned for financial reasons.^[24]

By the end of the decade however, the Austrian Navy began to be rebuilt. The growth of the Austrian Navy in the years following the Congress of Vienna were largely driven by political necessities, as well economic conditions. The marriage between Archduchess Maria Leopoldina and Emperor Pedro I of Brazil in 1817 marked the first time a ship from the Austrian Navy crossed the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, with the Archduchess traveling with the frigates Augusta and Austria to Rio de Janeiro.^[24] Three years later, the frigate Carolina escorted Austria's ambassador to Brazil across the Atlantic, before sailing on to China, marking the first time a ship from the Austrian Navy had traveled to East Asia. During the 1820s and early 1830s, Austrian trade along the Danube and within the Mediterranean grew rapidly. In 1830, the Austrian Danube Steam Navigation Company was founded and in 1834, its steamship Marie Dorothee became the first of its kind to travel the Mediterranean on a voyage between Trieste and Constantinople. In 1836, the Austrian Lloyd (German: Österreichischer Lloyd) was established. While Austria's merchant marine grew throughout the 1820s and 1830s, the Austrian Navy grew alongside it in order to provide protection on the high seas.^[25]

During the Greek War of Independence, the Austrian Navy engaged Greek pirates who routinely attempted to attack Austrian shipping in order to help fund the Greek rebellion against Ottoman rule. During the same time period, Barbary corsairs continued to prey upon Austrian shipping in the Western Mediterranean. These two threats greatly stretched the resources of Austria's naval forces, which were still rebuilding after the Napoleonic Wars.^[26] In 1829, two Austrian corvettes, a brig, and a schooner under Lieutenant Commander (German: Korvettenkapitän) Franz Bandiera sailed Morocco's Atlantic coast to obtain the release of an Austrian merchant ship which had been captured by pirates.^[27] While the mission resulted in the return of the ship's crew, the Moroccans refused to return the ship, resulting in the Austrian bombardment of Larache. This action resulted in Morocco returning the captured Austrian ship, as well as pay damages to Vienna. The bombardment of Larache resulted in the end of North African pirates raiding Austrian shipping in the Mediterranean Sea.^[26]

By the 1830s, an attempt to modernize the Navy had begun. The Austrian government granted new funding for the construction of additional ships and the purchasing of new equipment. The most notable change which was undertaken was the incorporation of steamships, with the first such ship in the Austrian Navy, the 500-tonne (492-long-ton)

Friedrich and the Austrian Navy had their first major military encounter during the

After a successful

The revolution in Vienna sparked anti-Habsburg riots in Milan and Venice. Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky was unable to defeat the Venetian and Milanese insurgents in Lombardy-Venetia, and had to order his forces to evacuate western Italy, pulling his forces back to a chain of defensive fortresses between Milan and Venice known as the Quadrilatero. With Vienna itself in the middle of an uprising against the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire appeared on the brink of collapse. On 23 March 1848, just one day after Radetzky was forced to retreat from Milan, The Kingdom of Sardinia declared war on the Austrian Empire, sparking the First Italian War of Independence.^[34]

Venice was at the time one of Austria's largest and most important ports, and the revolution which began there nearly led to the disintegration of the Austrian Navy. The Austrian commander of the Venetian Naval Yard was beaten to death by his own men, while the head of the city's Marine Guard was unable to provide any aid to suppress the uprising as most of the men under his command deserted. Vice-Admiral Anton von Martini, Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, attempted to put an end to the rebellion but was betrayed by his officers, the majority of whom were Venetians, and subsequently captured and held prisoner.^[35] By the end of March, the Austrian troops in Venice were forced from the city and the Austrian Navy appeared to be collapsing as many of the Austrian sailors and officers were of Italian descent. Fearing mutinies, Austrian officers ultimately relieved these Italian sailors of their duty and permitted them to return home. While this action left the Navy drastically undermanned, it prevented any wide-scale disintegration within the Navy which the Austrian Army had repeatedly suffered from in Italy.^[35]

The loss of so many Italian crew members and officers meant that the remaining ships which did not fall into rebel hands in Venice were lacking many crews. Out of roughly 5,000 men who were members of the Austrian Navy prior to the revolution, only 72 officers and 665 sailors remained. Further complicating matters for the Austrian Navy was the loss of Venice's naval dockyards, warehouses, its arsenal, as well as three corvettes and several smaller vessels to the Venetian rebels.

Meanwhile, fortunes continued to fade for the Austrians. The Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies both joined the war on the side of Sardinia,^[38][39] the latter sending a naval force into the Adriatic in cooperation with Sardinia to help seize Venice. This Italian fleet consisted of five frigates and several smaller vessels acquired by the Italian nationalists in Venice. Against this force, the Austrian Navy counted three frigates of 44 to 50 guns, two corvettes of 18 and 20 guns, eight brigs of six to 16 guns, 34 gunboats with three guns each, and two steamers of two guns. Despite its relatively large size for navies in the Adriatic, the Austrian Navy lacked experience against the combined Italian forces and Gyulai decided to withdraw his ships to Pola.^[37] After the Austrians moved back to Trieste due to the fact that Pola's small and undeveloped dockyards could not handle the size of the Austrian fleet, a stalemate ensued in the Adriatic. The Austrian fleet was too small to go on the offensive against the Italians, while the Italian naval commander, Rear Admiral Giovanbattista Albini, was under orders not to attack the port of Trieste as its location within the German Confederation may draw in other powers in central Europe against Sardinia.^[40] Austrian efforts to purchase additional warships from the United Kingdom, Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and from Egypt, all ended in failure as the funds to purchase the ships were instead used to fight Austria's many land battles with Hungarian and Italian nationalists, as well as the war with Sardinia. Early experimentation on the use of a self-propelled explosive device—forerunner to the torpedo—to attack the Italian ships also failure due to the technological constraints of the time. Additional proposals to break the Italian fleet by using fire ships was rejected as an "inhumane" way of fighting.^{[41][note 1]}

The stalemate in the Adriatic came to an end as the Papal States and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies pulled out of the war.^[38][39] Austrian reinforcements bolstered Radetzky's forces in the Italian peninsula and following the Battle of Custoza in July 1848, the tide of the war turned in Austria's favor.^[42] On 9 August, an armistice was signed between Sardinia and Austria, and a month later, Admiral Martini was released in a prisoner exchange and returned as head of the Navy. While Martini unsuccessfully lobbied for the purchase of new steam ships to re-establish a blockade of Venice, Sardinia resumed the war with Austria on 12 March 1849. This led to the disastrous Sardinian defeat at the Battle of Novara ten days later. The decisive defeat forced King Charles Albert of Sardinia to abdicate the throne of Sardinia in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II and brought the First War of Italian Independence to an end in August 1849.^[43] Venice was the last Italian nationalist holdout to fall on 27 August 1849.^{[44][note 2]}

The Revolutions of 1848 marked a turning point in the history of the Austrian Navy. Up until that time, the Navy had been dominated by the Italian language, customs, and traditions. Prior to the revolution, the Austrian Navy was mostly made up of Italian crew members, the Italian language was the primary language, and even Italian ship names were used over German ones, such as Lipsia rather than Leipzig. Indeed, in the years before 1848, the Navy was largely considered to be a "local affair of Venice".^[35] In the years after 1848, most of the navy's officers corps hailed from the German-speaking parts of the Empire, while most of the sailors came from Istria and the Dalmatian Coast, leading to Croats, Germans, and even Hungarians to begin to be represented among the ranks of the Austrian Navy.^[35]

After retaking Venice, the Austrians acquired several warships which were under construction or already seaworthy. Most of these ships were added to the strength of the Austrian Navy, increasing the size and strength of the Navy considerably by the year 1850.^[44] In Venice the naval shipyard was retained. Here the Austrian screw-driven gunboat Kerka (crew: 100) was launched in 1860 (in service until 1908).

In the final months of the blockade of Venice, the Danish-born Hans Birch Dahlerup was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Austrian Navy. Emperor Franz Joseph I selected Dahlerup due to his desire to replace Italian influence within the Navy. Dahlerup introduced many personal reforms, such as reorganizing the command structure of the Navy, establishing new service regulations, and setting up a school for naval officers. He also began the process of replacing Italian with German as the spoken de facto language of the Austrian Navy. However, Dahlerup's command style clashed heavily with the prevailing culture within the Austrian Navy and he resigned after just over two years.^[45]

After a two-year interim period in which Lieutenant General Count

Despite his age, the fact that he had only been in the Navy for four years, and his lack of experience in battle or command on the high seas, Ferdinand Max proved to be among the most effective and successful commanders of the Austrian Navy in history. He was described by Lawrence Sondhaus in his book The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy, 1797–1866 as "the most gifted leader the navy had ever had, or ever would have".[47] Anthony Sokol describes Ferdinand Max in his book The Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Navy as "one of the most talented of the Habsburg princes...He used his prestige, youthful enthusiasm, and love of the Service to promote it in every way possible."^[48]

Ferdinand Max worked hard to separate the Austrian Navy from its dependence upon the Austrian Army, which had nominal control over its affairs. On 14 January 1862, Franz Joseph I agreed to establish the Ministry of Marine, which oversaw the affairs of both the Austrian Navy, and the Austrian merchant marine, and named Count Matthias von Wickenburg its head. Under this new system, Ferdinand Max continued to be the Oberkommandant, but he was no longer responsible for the political management of the fleet.^[49] In addition to obtaining support for the creation of Ministry of Marine, Ferdinand Max was given great freedom by the Emperor to manage the navy as he saw fit, especially with respect to the construction and acquisition of new warships.^[50]

Ferdinand Max immediately went to work expanding the Austrian Navy. Fears of over-dependence upon foreign shipyards to supply Austrian warships enabled him to convince his brother to authorize the construction of a new drydock at Pola, and the expansion of existing shipyards in Trieste. Furthermore, Ferdinand Max initiated an ambitious construction program in the ports of Pola, Trieste, and Venice, the largest the Adriatic had seen since the Napoleonic Wars.^[50] Pola in particular saw a considerable amount of attention as its natural harbor and strategic location along the Adriatic coastline of Austria enabled ships docked there to provide protection for Trieste as well as the Dalmatian Coast. While it had been used as a base for the Navy during the Revolutions of 1848, the small dockyards and port facilities, coupled with surrounding swampland had hindered its development. In addition to Pola's new drydock, Ferdinand Max had the swamps drained and constructed a new arsenal for the city.^[48]

By 1855, a screw-powered ship-of-the-line was under construction in Pola after failed bids to construct the ship with British and American shipbuilding firms,

As a result of these construction projects, the Austrian Navy grew to its largest size since the War of Austrian Succession over 100 years prior. Despite these efforts however, the Navy was still considerably smaller than its French, British, or Sardinian counterparts.[54] Indeed, the Austrian Navy was still attempting to catch up to the technological developments which had emerged during the first half of the 19th century with respect to steam power, when the emergence of the French iron-platted floating battery Dévastation gained international attention following its use during the Crimean War in October 1855. Dévastation signalled the beginning of the emergence of ironclad warships over the course of the next decade.^[55][56]

Indeed, the French Navy's technological and numerical edge proved to be decisive in driving the Austrian Navy to port shortly after the outbreak of the

After the Second War of Italian Independence, Sardinia ordered two small ironclads from France in 1860.

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian also initiated a large-scale scientific expedition (1857–1859) during which the

In 1863 the Royal Navy's battleship HMS Marlborough, the flagship of Admiral Charles Fremantle, made a courtesy visit to Pola, the main port of the Austro-Hungarian Navy.^[79]

In April 1864 Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian stepped down as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy and accepted the throne of

On May 9, 1864, Tegetthoff commanded the Austrian naval forces in the naval action off Heligoland from his flagship, the screw-driven SMS Schwarzenberg.^[79] The action was a tactical victory for the Danish forces. However, in strategic sense the Austro-Prussian fleet succeed breaking the Danish blockade. It was also the last significant naval action fought by squadrons of wooden ships and the last significant naval action involving Denmark.

On 20 July 1866, near the island of

In 1873 the new sail and steam frigate SMS Laudon (crew 480) was added to the fleet, which took part in the International Naval Review off Gruž in 1880.^[79]

During peacetime, Austrian ships visited Asia, North America, South America, and the Pacific Ocean.^[81]

In 1869 Emperor Franz Joseph travelled on board the screw-driven corvette SMS Viribus Unitis (not to be confused with the later battleship of the same name) to the opening of the Suez Canal. The ship had been named after his personal motto.^[82]

Austro-Hungarian ships and naval personnel were also involved in Arctic exploration, discovering Franz Josef Land during an expedition which lasted from 1872 to 1874.

Led by the naval officer Karl Weyprecht and the infantry officer and landscape artist Julius Payer, the custom-built schooner Tegetthoff left Tromsø in July 1872. At the end of August, she got locked in pack-ice north of Novaya Zemlya and drifted to hitherto unknown polar regions. It was on this drift when the explorers discovered an archipelago which they named after Emperor Franz Joseph I.

In May 1874 Payer decided to abandon the ice-locked ship and try to return by sledges and boats. On 14 August 1874 the expedition reached the open sea and on 3 September finally set foot on Russian mainland.

In late 1896 a rebellion broke out on

Austria-Hungary was part of the

In June they helped hold the

After the uprising, a cruiser was maintained permanently on the China station, and a detachment of marines was deployed at the embassy in Beijing.

Lieutenant

During the First Balkan War Austria-Hungary joined Germany, France, the United Kingdom and Italy in blockading the seaport town of Bar (Antivari) in the Kingdom of Montenegro.

Among the many factors giving rise to World War I was the naval

In 1906 Britain completed the battleship HMS Dreadnought, and it was so advanced that some argued that this rendered all previous battleships obsolete, although Britain and other countries kept pre-dreadnoughts in service.

Austria-Hungary's

Between 22 and 28 May 1914 Tegetthoff, accompanied by Viribus Unitis, made a courtesy visit to the British Mediterranean fleet in Malta.^[82]

In 1904, after allowing the navies of other countries to pioneer submarine developments, the Austro-Hungarian Navy ordered the Austrian Naval Technical Committee (MTK) to produce a submarine design. The January 1905 design developed by the MTK and other designs submitted by the public as part of a design competition were all rejected by the Navy as impracticable. They instead opted to order two submarines each of designs by Simon Lake, Germaniawerft, and John Philip Holland for a competitive evaluation. The two Germaniawerft submarines comprised the U-3 class.^[85] The Navy authorized two boats, U-3 and U-4, from the Germaniawerft in 1906.^[86]

The U-3-class was an improved version of Germaniawerft's design for the Imperial German Navy's first U-boat, U-1,^[86] and featured a double hull with internal saddle tanks. The Germaniawerft engineers refined the design's hull shape through extensive model trials.^[87]

Austro-Hungarian Naval Budget: 1901–1914
(in millions of Austro-Hungarian krone)^[91]

After the

On 23 May 1915, when Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Navy left their harbors in Pola (today Pula, Croatia), Sebenico (today Šibenik, Croatia) and Cattaro (today Kotor, Montenegro) to bombard the eastern Italian coast between Venice and Barletta. Main targets were the cities of Ancona, Rimini, Vieste, Manfredonia, Barletta and bridges and railway tracks along the coast. Until 1917 the Austro-Hungarian fleet was as yet largely undamaged.

The presence of three Allied navies in the Mediterranean made any measures of their co-ordination and common doctrine extraordinarily difficult. The Mediterranean was divided into eleven zones, of which the British naval authorities were responsible for four, the French for four, and the Italians for three. Differing command structures, national pride and the language barrier all contributed to a lack of cohesion in the application of Allied sea power, producing a situation in which German and Austro-Hungarian U-boat attacks on shipping flourished.

In December 1915 a k.u.k. Kriegsmarine cruiser squadron attempted to make a raid on the Serbian troops evacuating Albania. After sinking a French submarine and bombarding the town of Durazzo the squadron ran into a minefield, sinking one destroyer and damaging another. The next day the group ran into a squadron of British, French, and Italian cruisers and destroyers. The resulting battle left two Austro-Hungarian destroyers sunk and inflicted light damage upon another, while dealing only minor damage to the Allied cruisers and destroyers present.

A three-power conference on 28 April 1917, at Corfu, discussed a more offensive strategy in the Adriatic, but the Italians were not prepared to consider any big ship operations, considering the size of the Austro-Hungarian fleet. The British and French seemed reluctant to move alone against the Austro-Hungarians, especially if it meant a full-scale battle. But the Austrians were not inactive either, and even as the Allied conference was in session they were planning an offensive operation against the Otranto Barrage.

Throughout 1917 the Adriatic remained the key to the U-boat war on shipping in the Mediterranean. Cattaro, some 140 miles above the narrow Straits of Otranto, was the main U-boat base from which almost the entire threat to Mediterranean shipping came.

The Otranto Barrage, constructed by the Allies with up to 120 naval drifters, used to deploy and patrol submarine nets, and 30 motor launches, all equipped with depth charges, was designed to stop the passage of U-boats from Cattaro. However, this failed to do so, and from its inception in 1916, the barrage had caught only two U-boats, the Austrian U-6 and the German UB-44 out of hundreds of possible passages.

However, the barrage effectively meant that the Austro-Hungarian surface fleet could not leave the Adriatic Sea unless it was willing to give battle to the blocking forces. This, and as the war drew on bringing supply difficulties especially coal, plus a fear of mines, limited the Austro-Hungarian navy to shelling the Italian and Serbian coastlines.

There had already been four small-scale Austro-Hungarian attacks on the barrage, on 11 March, 21 and 25 April and 5 May 1917, but none of them amounted to anything. Now greater preparations were made, with two U-boats despatched to lay mines off Brindisi with a third patrolling the exits in case Anglo-Italian forces were drawn out during the attack. The whole operation was timed for the night of 14/15 May, which led to the biggest battle of the Austro-Hungarian navy in World War I, the Battle of the Otranto Straits.

The first Austro-Hungarian warships to strike were the two destroyers, SMS Csepel and SMS Balaton. An Italian convoy of three ships, escorted by the destroyer Borea, was approaching Valona, when, out of the darkness, the Austrians fell upon them. Borea was left sinking. Of the three merchant ships, one loaded with ammunition was hit and blown up, a second set on fire, and the third hit. The two Austrian destroyers then steamed off northward.

Meanwhile, three Austro-Hungarian cruisers under the overall command of Captain Miklós Horthy, SMS Novara, SMS Saida, and SMS Helgoland, had actually passed a patrol of four French destroyers north of the barrage, and thought to be friendly ships passed unchallenged. They then sailed through the barrage before turning back to attack it. Each Austrian cruiser took one-third of the line and began slowly and systematically to destroy the barrage with their 100mm (3.9") guns, urging all Allies on board to abandon their ships first.

During this battle the Allies lost two destroyers, 14

In February 1918 a mutiny started in the 5th Fleet stationed at the

The mutiny failed to spread beyond Cattaro, and within three days a loyal naval squadron had arrived. Together with coastal artillery the squadron fired several shells into a few of the rebel's ships, and then assaulted them with Marine Infantry in a short and successful skirmish. About 800 sailors were imprisoned, dozens were court-martialed, and four seamen were executed, including the leader of the uprising, Franz Rasch, a Bohemian. Given the huge crews required in naval vessels of that time, this is an indication that the mutiny was limited to a minority.

A second attempt to force the blockade took place in June 1918 under the command of Rear Admiral

In 1918, in order to avoid having to give the fleet to the victors, the Austrian Emperor handed down the entire Austro-Hungarian Navy and merchant fleet, with all harbours, arsenals and shore fortifications to the new State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The state of SCS was proclaimed officially on 29 October 1918 but never recognized by other countries. Diplomatic notes were sent to the governments of France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States and Russia, to notify them that the State of SCS was not at war with any of them and that the Council had taken over the entire Austro-Hungarian fleet; no response was provided, and for all practical purposes the war went on unchanged. Austria asked for an armistice on 29 October; after a few days' negotiation and the signatures, the armistice entered into force on 4 November.

On 1 November 1918, two sailors of the Italian

• Ships lost in World War I:[93]
  • 1914: SMS Kaiserin Elisabeth (Siege of Tsingtao, 1914), SMS Zenta, SMS Flamingo (TB. 26)
  • 1915: SM U-12, SM U-3, SMS Lika, SMS Triglav
  • 1916: SM U-6, SM U-16
  • 1917: SM U-30, SMS Wildfang, SMS Wien, SMS TB.XII, SMS Inn (sunk by a Romanian mine)^[94][95][96]
  • 1918: SM U-23, SMS Streiter, SM U-20, SM U-10, SMS Szent István, SMS Viribus Unitis
• Ships lost after World War I:
  • 1919: SMS Kaiser Franz Joseph I

The home port of the Austro-Hungarian Navy was the Seearsenal (naval base) at Pola (now

Trieste was also the headquarters of the merchant line Österreichischer Lloyd (founded in 1836 and, later, Lloyd Triestino; now Italia Marittima), whose headquarters stood at the corner of the Piazza Grande and Sanita. By 1913, Österreichischer Lloyd had a fleet of 62 ships comprising a total of 236,000 tons.^[79]

The Austro-Hungarian Navy was under the control of the Imperial and Royal Naval Section (K. u. k. Marinesektion), a separate department under the common War Ministry of the Realm (Reichskriegsministerium). An independent Naval Ministry (Marineministerium) existed in the short period of time between 1862 and 1865 and the Austrian admirals have demanded, that it should be reinstated, but this fell through due to the ongoing negotiations between the Imperial court and Hungary in preparation for the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Hungarian politicians strongly objected the creation of a fourth common ministry, unless two of the eventually four ministries relocate to Budapest. The Austro-Hungarian Navy had the following structure:^[98]

Imperial and Royal Naval Section (K. u. k. Marinesektion), Vordere Zollamtsstraße 9, III. Urban District, Vienna

Chief of the Naval Section and Commander of the Navy (Chef der Marinesektion und Marinekommandanten)

• Deputy Commander of the Navy (Stellvertreter des Marinekommandanten)
• - the naval staff -
  • Office of Administration (Präsidialkanzlei)
  • Office of Operations (Operationskanzlei)
  • I. Work Group (I. Geschäftsgruppe)
    • 1. Department (1. Abteilung) - Personnel affairs for sailors, petty officers and junior officers
    • 2. Department (2. Abteilung) - Manpower generation, career development and social affairs for servicemen and family members
    • 3. Department (3. Abteilung) - Logistics
  • II. Work Group (I. Geschäftsgruppe)
    • 4. Department (4. Abteilung) - Technical R&D department
    • 5. Department (5. Abteilung) - Marine fortifications and coastal installations
    • 6. Department (6. Abteilung) - Expenditures, comptrolling, commercial negotiations and contracting
    • 7. Department (7. Abteilung) - Legal department
    • 8. Department (8. Abteilung) - Financial auditing
    • 9. Department (9. Abteilung) - Medical department
• Naval Inspection (Materialkontrollamt), Vienna, Chairman (Vorstand) - Rear Admiral
• Central Naval Archive (Marinezentralarchiv), Vienna

Harbour Admiralty (Hafenadmiralat), Pola (all in Pola, except for the Trieste Seamen Detachment), Harbour Admiral and Commander of the War Port (Hafenadmiral und Kriegshafenkommandant) - Vice-Admiral

• Harbour Admiral's Deputy (Adlatus des Hafenadmirals) - Rear Admiral
• Military Department (Militärabteilung)
• Mobilisation Department (Mobilisierungsabteilung)
• Telegraph Bureau (Telegraphenbureau)
• Medical Department (Sanitätsabteilung)
• Department for Economy and Administration (Ökonomisch-administrative Abteilung)
• Legal Advisor and Military Attorney (Justizreferent und Militäranwalt)
• Naval Pay Service (Marinezahlamt)
• Seamen Corps (Matrosenkorps) - army regiment equivalent for the seamen on shore duty
  • I. Seamen Depot (I. Matrosendepot) - army battalion equivalent
  • II. Seamen Depot (I. Matrosendepot) - army battalion equivalent
  • III. Seamen Depot (I. Matrosendepot) - army battalion equivalent
  • Trieste Seamen Detachment (Matrosendetachement zu Triest), in Trieste - army battalion equivalent
• School for Naval Machinery (Maschinenschule)
• Naval Boys' School (Marine-Volks- und -Bürgerschule für Knaben)
• Naval Girls' School (Marine-Volks- und -Bürgerschule für Mädchen)
• Hydrographic Service (Hydrographisches Amt)
  • Starwatch (Sternwarte)
  • Department for Geophysics (Abteilung für Geophysik)
  • Depot for Fine Instruments (Instrumentendepot)
  • Depot for Naval Maps (Seekartendepot)
• Naval Hospital (Marinespital)
• Naval Food Provision Service (Marineproviantamt)
• Naval Cloathing Service (Marinebekleidungsamt)
• Naval Prison (Marinegefangenhaus)

Naval Arsenal Command (Seearsenalskommando), Pola, Commander of the Arsenal (Arsenals-Kommandant) - Vice-Admiral

• Deputy Commander of the Arsenal (Stellvertretender Arsenals-Kommandant) - Rear Admiral
• Administrative Director (Verwaltungsdirektor)
• Equipment Directorate (Ausrüstungsdirektion)
• Port Depot (Hafendepot)
• Torpedo Boats Directorate (Torpedobootsdirektion)
• Rigging Directorate (Takeldirektion)
• Arsenal Commission (Arsenalskommission)
• Shipbuilding Directorate (Schiffbaudirektion)
• Machinery Construction Directorate (Maschinenbaudirektion)
• Artillery Directorate (Artilleriedirektion)
• Chemical Laboratory (Chemisches Laboratorium)
• Naval Ammunitions Establishment (Marinemunitionsetablissement)
• Main Ammunition Storage (Hauptmagazin)
• School for Basic and Specialised Training (Lehrlings- und Arbeiterschule)

Marine Fortifications and Coastal Installations Service (Marine-Land- und -Wasserbauamt), Pola, Director (Direktor) - Major-General

Naval Technical Committee (Marinetechnisches Komitee), Pola, Chairman (Präses) - Vice-Admiral

• Deputy (Stellvertretender) - Rear Admiral

Naval Intelligence Bureau (Marineevidenzbureau), Pola

Naval Technical Control Commission (Marinetechnische Kontrollkommission), Pola

Naval Superiorate (Marinesuperiorat) (chaplaincy)

Naval Academy (Marineakademie),

Sea Transport Coordination Office (Seetransportleitung), Trieste

Sea District Command Trieste (Seebezirkskommando zu Triest), Commandant (Kommandant) - Rear Admiral

• Technical Department (Technische Abteilung)
• Financial Department (Rechnungsabteilung)

Sea District Command Sebenico (Seebezirkskommando zu Sebenico), Commandant (Kommandant) - Rear Admiral

• Military Department (Militär-Abteilung)
• Legal Department (Justizabteilung)
• Medical Department (Sanitätsabteilung)
• Department for Economy and Administration (Ökonomisch-administrative Abteilung)

Defence District Command Castelnuovo (Verteidigungsbezirkskommando zu Castelnuovo)

Warfleet [Personnel] Replacement Commands (Kriegsmarine-Ergänzungsbezirkskommandos) in Triest, Sebenico and Fiume

Secondary Location Commands (Platzkommandos) in Sebenico and Spalato

Naval Detachment in Budapest (Marine-Detachement zu Budapest)

Naval Detachment in Beijing (Marinedetachement in Peking)

Naval Detachment in Tianjin (Marinedetachement in Tientsin)

The entire operational fleet was called the Imperial and Royal Squadron (K.u.k. Eskadre). The Eskadre was divided into a Ship-of-the-Line Fleet, a Cruiser Flotilla and a Submarine Flotilla, plus technically outdated warships for harbour defence and various support ships.

Imperial and Royal Squadron

Ship-of-the-Line Fleet

Cruiser Flotilla The Cruiser Flotilla included all the lighter and light surface forces of the Navy - armored cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and torpedo boats under the command of Vice-Admiral Paul Fiedler.

Local Defence Forces

Submarine Flotilla Submarine Station, Pola (subordinated to the Harbour Admiralty in peacetime, with the outbreak of WWI the station expanded into the Submarine Flotilla and transferred to the island of

• SM U-1
• SM U-2
• SM U-3
• SM U-4
• SM U-5
• SM U-6

Danube Flotilla
In addition to the seagoing force stationed in the Adriatic, the navy also had units stationed for operations on the River Danube and its tributaries.

In August 1916, the Imperial and Royal Naval Air Corps or k.u.k. Seeflugwesen was established. In 1917 it was rechristened the k.u.k. Seefliegerkorps. Its first aviators were naval officers who received their initial pilot training at the airfields of

The following Austrian squadrons served at Feltre also:

• Flik 11 - from February 1918
• Flik 14 - from June 1918 to November 1918
• Flik 16 - from November 1917 - October 1918
• Flik 31 - from June - July 1918
• Flik 36 - from June - July 1918
• Flik 39 - from January - May 1918
• Flik 45 - during April 1918
• Flik 56 - during December 1917
• Flik 60J - from March - September 1918
• Flik 66 - from January 1918 - November 1918
• Flik 101 - during May 1918

Feltre was captured by Austrian forces on 12 November 1917 after the

• Fokker A.III
• Fokker E.III
• Hansa-Brandenburg B.I
• Hansa-Brandenburg D.I
• Aviatik D.I
• Albatros W.4
• Phönix D.I
• Fokker D.VII
• Lohner L

For most of the period of its existence the Austrian (and later Austro-Hungarian) Navy was never a high financial or political priority for the Empire.

Sea power was never an important consideration in Austrian foreign policy. In addition, the Navy was relatively little known to the public, and did not enjoy widespread support or popular enthusiasm. Activities such as open days and naval clubs were unable to change the sentiment that the Navy was just something "expensive but far away". Another point was that naval expenditures were for most of the time overseen by the Austrian War Ministry, which was largely controlled by the Army, the only exception being the period preceding the Battle of Lissa.

The Navy was only able to secure significant public attention and funds during the three short periods it was actively supported by a member of the

• Archduke Franz Ferdinand
  , Admiral. Commander-in-Chief of the Navy
• Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian
  , Viceadmiral. Commander-in-Chief of the Navy
• Ludwig von Fautz, Viceadmiral. Commander-in-Chief of the Navy and Secretary of the Navy
• Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, Viceadmiral of the mid-19th century, known for his role in the Battle of Lissa (1866). He was probably the most famous Austrian sailor, later also Commander-in-Chief of the Navy.
• Friedrich von Pöck, Vice Admiral, Commander-in-Chief of the Navy, Tegetthoff's successor.
• Maximilian von Sterneck, Admiral. Fought at Lissa, was a benefactor of the city of Pola and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy.
• Karl Weyprecht, Arctic explorer. One of the leaders of the
  Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition
  from 1872 to 1874.
• Novara Expedition
  from 1857 to 1859, later Imperial Minister of Trade.
• Gottfried von Banfield
  , Austria-Hungary's most successful naval aviator in World War I. Later a businessman in Trieste.
• Miklós Horthy, Viceadmiral in World War I and last commander of the Austro-Hungarian fleet. Later Regent of Hungary until 1944.
• Von Trapp Family Singers featured in the musical The Sound of Music
  .
• Ludwig von Höhnel, Austrian naval officer and explorer of Africa.
• Nobel Prize in Medicine
  in 1927.

The rank insignia of

Rank group	General / flag officers										Senior officers						Junior officers
Austro-Hungarian Navy[99][100]
	Großadmiral Főtengernagy				Admiral Tengernagy		Vizeadmiral Altengernagy		Kontreadmiral Ellentengernagy		Linienschiffkapitän Sorhajókapitány		Fregattenkapitän Fregattkapitány		Korvettenkapitän Korvettkapitány		Linienschiffsleutnant Sorhajóhadnagy		Fregattenleutnant Fregatthadnagy			Korvettenleutnant Korvetthadnagy

The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.

Rank group	NCOs			Enlisted
Austro-Hungarian Navy[101][102]
	Oberstabsbootsmann	Stabsbootsmann	Unterbootsmann	Bootsmannsmaat	Quartiermeister	Matrose 1. Klasse	Matrose 2. Klasse

Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Term of office			Ref.
		Took office	Left office	Time in office
Oberkommandant der Marine
	Vice admiral Hans Dahlerup [da] (1790–1872)	February 1849	August 1851	2 years, 6 months
	Vice admiral Franz Graf von Wimpffen (1797–1870)	August 1851	September 1854	3 years, 1 month
	Vice admiral Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian (1832–1867)	September 1854	1860	5–6 years
	Vice admiral Ludwig von Fautz (1811–1880)	1860	March 1865	4–5 years
Marinekommandant
	Vice admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff (1827–1871)	March 1868	April 1871	3 years, 1 month
	Vice admiral Friedrich von Pöck (1825–1884)	April 1871	November 1883	12 years, 7 months
	Admiral Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck (1829–1897)	November 1883	5 December 1897 †	14 years, 1 month
	Admiral Hermann von Spaun (1833–1919)	December 1897	October 1904	6 years, 10 months
	Admiral Graf Rudolf Montecuccoli (1843–1922)	October 1904	February 1913	8 years, 4 months
	Grand admiral Anton Haus (1851–1917)	February 1913	8 February 1917 †	4 years
	Admiral Maximilian Njegovan (1858–1930)	April 1917	February 1918	10 months

(in German Flottenkommandant)

• Anton Haus, Adm./GAdm (July 1914–February 1917)
• Maximilian Njegovan, Adm. (February 1917–February 1918)
• Miklós Horthy, KAdm./VAdm. (February 1918–November 1918)

(in German Chef der Marinesektion at the Kriegsministerium)

• Ludwig von Fautz, VAdm. (March 1865–April 1868)
• Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, VAdm.(March 1868–April 1871)
• Friedrich von Pöck, Adm. (October 1872–November 1883)
• Maximilian Daublebsky von Sterneck, Adm. (November 1883–December 1897)
• Hermann von Spaun, Adm. (December 1897–October 1904)
• Rudolf Montecuccoli, Adm. (October 1904–February 1913)
• Anton Haus, Adm./GAdm. (February 1913–February 1917)
• Karl Kailer von Kaltenfels, VAdm. (February 1917–April 1917)
• Maximilian Njegovan, Adm. (April 1917–February 1918)
• Franz von Holub, VAdm. (February 1918–November 1918)

(in German Generalschiffbauingenieur)

• Josef von Romako
• A. Waldvogel
• Siegfried Popper, (1904–April 1907)
• Franz Pitzinger, (November 1914–1918)

Until Emperor Joseph II authorized a naval ensign on 20 March 1786, Austrian naval vessels used the yellow and black imperial flag. The flag, formally adopted as Marineflagge (naval ensign) was based on the colours of the Archduchy of Austria. It served as the official flag also after the Ausgleich in 1867, when the Austrian navy became the Austro-Hungarian Navy.^[103] During World War I, Emperor Franz Joseph approved of a new design, which also contained the Hungarian arms. This flag, officially instituted in 1915, was however little used, and ships continued displaying the old Ensign until the end of the war. Photographs of Austro-Hungarian ships flying the post-1915 form of the Naval Ensign are therefore relatively rare.

British author

• The Adriatic Campaign of World War I
• List of ships of the Austro-Hungarian Navy
• List of Austro-Hungarian U-boats
• Mediterranean naval engagements during World War I

General and cited references

• Anderson, M. S. (1995). The War of the Austrian Succession 1740–1748 (1st ed.). London: Longman.
  ISBN 058205950X
  .
• Baratelli, Franco (1983). La marina militare italiana nella vita nazionale (1860–1914) (in Italian). Milan: Ugo Mursia Editore.
  OCLC 799197000
  .
• Bolts, Guillaume (1787). Recueil de pièces authentiques, relatives aux affaires de la ci-devant Société impériale asiatique de Trieste, gérées à Anvers (in French). Antwerp.
• Butel, Paul (1997). Européens et espaces maritimes : (vers 1690 - vers 1790) (in French) (2. réimpr. ed.). Talence: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux.
  ISBN 2867811945
  .
• Clark, Martin (2013). The Italian Risorgimento (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Taylor and Francis.
  ISBN 9781317862642
  .
• Donko, Wilhelm M. (2012). A Brief History of the Austrian Navy (in German). Berlin: E-publi Verlag.
  ISBN 978-3-8442-2129-9
  .
• De Biasio, Stefano; Freivogel, Zvonimir; Johnson, Harold; Sieche, Erwin; Wetherhorn, Aryeh (1998). "Question 6/97: Disposition of ex-Austro-Hungarian Warships". Warship International. XXXV (1): 94–104.
  ISSN 0043-0374
  .
• Frey, Marsha (1995). Frey, Linda (ed.). The Treaties of the War of the Spanish Succession: An Historical and Critical Dictionary (1st ed.). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
  ISBN 0313278849
  .
• Gabriele, Mariano; Fritz, Giuliano (1982). La Politica Navale Italiana Dal 1885 Al 1915 (in Italian). Rome: Ufficio Storico della Marina Militare.
• Gardiner, Robert, ed. (1979). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905. London: Conway Maritime Press.
  ISBN 0-85177-133-5
  .
• Giglio, Vittorio (1948). Il Risorgimento nelle sue fasi di guerra (in Italian). Milan: Vallardi.
• Handel-Mazzetti, Peter; Sokol, Hans Hugo (1952). Wilhelm von Tegetthoff, ein grosser Österreicher (in German). Linz: Oberösterreichischer Landesverlag.
  OCLC 6688034
  .
• Hauke, Erwin; Schroeder, Walter; Tötschinger, Bernhard (1988). Die Flugzeuge der k.u.k. Luftfahrtruppe und Seeflieger, 1914–1918 (in German) (1. Aufl. ed.). Graz: H. Weishaupt.
  ISBN 978-3900310462
  .
• Kemp, Peter (1971). "The Otranto Barrage". History of the First World War. 6 (1). Bristol: BPC Publishing: 2265–2272.
• Lambert, Andrew (1984). Battleships in Transition: The Creation of the Steam Battlefleet, 1815–1860. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.
  ISBN 978-0870210907
  .
• Lavery, Brian (1983). The Ship of the Line (1st ed.). London: Conway Maritime Press.
  ISBN 0851772528
  .
• McKay, Derek (1977). Prince Eugene of Savoy. London: Thames and Hudson.
  ISBN 0500870071
  .
• Ordovini, Aldo F.; Petronio, Fulvio; Sullivan, David M. (December 2014). "Capital Ships of the Royal Italian Navy, 1860–1918: Part I: The Formidabile, Principe di Carignano, Re d'Italia, Regina Maria Pia, Affondatore, Roma and Principe Amedeo Classes".
  Warship International
  . Vol. 51, no. 4. pp. 323–360.
• Pieri, Piero (1962). Storia militare del Risorgimento (in Italian). Torino: Einaudi.
• Reich, Emil (1905). "Abidcation of Francis the Second". Select Documents Illustrating Mediæval and Modern History. Londong: P.S. King & Son. p. 622.
  OCLC 4426595 – via Internet Archive
  .
• Salcher, Peter (1902). Geschichte der K. U. K. Marine-akademie (in German). Fiume: Sine nomine.
• Schupita, Peter (1983). Die k.u.k. Seeflieger: Chronik und Dokumentation der österreichisch-ungarischen Marineluftwaffe, 1911–1918 (in German). Koblenz: Bernard und Grafe.
• Sokol, Anthony (1968). The Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Navy. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute.
  OCLC 462208412
  .
• Sondhaus, Lawrence (1989). The Habsburg Empire and the Sea: Austrian Naval Policy, 1797–1866. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.
  ISBN 978-0911198973
  .
• Sondhaus, Lawrence (2002). Navies of Europe: 1815-2002. Harlow: Routledge.
  ISBN 0582506131
  .
• Tamborra, Angelo (October–December 1957). "Balcani, Italia ed Europa nel problema della Venezia (1859–1861)". Rassegna Storica del Risorgimento (in Italian). 44: 813–818.
• Thaller, Anja (2009). "Graz 1382 – Ein Wendepunkt der Triestiner Geschichte?". Historisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Graz (in German). 38/39: 191–221. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
• Trevelyan, George (1909). Garibaldi and the Thousand. New York: Logmans, Green and Co.
• Wagner, Walter (1961). Die obersten Behörden der k.u.k. Kriegsmarine 1856-1918 (in German). Vienna: Druck und Verlag Ferdinand Berger Horn.
• Wedgwood, C. V. (2005). The Thirty Years War. New York: New York Review Books.
  ISBN 1590171462
  .

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to k.u.k. Kriegsmarine.

• The Genesis of the Austrian Navy - A Chronology
• k.u.k. Kriegsmarine Archived 2009-08-04 at the Wayback Machine - Austro-Hungarian Navy officer rank insignia
• Society for Research of the imperial and royal navy (k.u.k. Marine) "Viribus unitis" - Pula
• Austro-Hungarian Navy in World War 1, 1914-18 including ship losses
• Austro-Hungarian Navy Deployment, 1914
• Austro-Hungarian Danube Flotilla 1914
• The Austro-Hungarian Submarine Force
• Viribus Unitis
• Antique Photography & Postcards of Austro-Hungarian army 1866-1918 (in English)