Emperor
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The word emperor (from
Both emperors and kings are
In
Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century, the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by the
Historians have liberally used "emperor" and "empire" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from the past or the present. Such pre-Roman titles as
era. However, such "empires" did not need to be headed by an "emperor". "Empire" became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century.For purposes of protocol, the size and scope of a kingdom or empire may determine
Roman and Byzantine emperors
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Classical Antiquity
When Republican Rome turned into a de facto monarchy in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch. Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex ("king"), and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule. Julius Caesar had been Dictator, an acknowledged and traditional office in Republican Rome. Caesar was not the first to hold it, but following his assassination the term was abhorred in Rome.[citation needed]
Augustus, considered the first Roman emperor, established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man. One of these offices was princeps senatus, ("first man of the Senate") and became changed into Augustus' chief honorific, princeps civitatis ("first citizen") from which the modern English word and title prince is descended. The first period of the Roman Empire, from 27 BC to AD 284, is called the principate for this reason. However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator ("commander") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors. Previously bestowed on high officials and military commanders who had imperium, Augustus reserved it exclusively to himself as the ultimate holder of all imperium. (Imperium is Latin for the authority to command, one of a various types of authority delineated in Roman political thought.)
Beginning with Augustus, Imperator appeared in the title of all Roman monarchs through the extinction of the Empire in 1453. After the reign of Augustus' immediate successor Tiberius, being proclaimed imperator was transformed into the act of accession to the head of state. Other honorifics used by the Roman emperors have also come to be synonyms for Emperor:
- Caesar Augustusto the modern era.
- Augusta) to his wife. Since there was no "title" of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and it was certainly not a rule that all wives of reigning emperors would receive it.
- Imperatrixonly developed after "Imperator" had taken on the connotation of "Emperor".
- Autokrator (Αὐτοκράτωρ) or Basileus (βασιλεύς): although the Greeks used equivalents of "Caesar" (Καῖσαρ, Kaisar) and "Augustus" (in two forms: transliterated as Αὔγουστος, Augoustos or translated as Σεβαστός, Sebastos) these were rather used as part of the name of the emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used αὐτοκράτωρ (autokratōr, only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of "autocrat") or βασιλεύς (basileus, until then the usual name for "sovereign"). Autokratōr was essentially used as a translation of the Latin Imperator in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire, but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the Greeks Autokratōr was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin dictator concept ("the one with unlimited power"), before it came to mean Emperor. Basileus appears not to have been used exclusively in the meaning of "emperor" (and specifically, the Roman/Byzantine emperor) before the 7th century, although it was a standard informal designation of the emperor in the Greek-speaking East. The title was later applied by the rulers of various Eastern Orthodox countries claiming to be the successors of Rome/Byzantium, such as Georgia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Russia.
After the turbulent
During the
The
Byzantine period
Before the 4th Crusade
Historians generally refer to the continuing Roman Empire in the east as the
These Later Roman "Byzantine" emperors completed the transition from the idea of the emperor as a semi-republican official to the emperor as an
In general usage, the Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply "emperor" (basileus) to "emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 9th century, to "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" (basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn) in the 10th.[4] In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded.
One important distinction between the post Constantine I (reigned AD 306–337) emperors and their pagan predecessors was
The Byzantine Empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state: the Empress
Latin emperors
In 1204 Constantinople fell to the
After the 4th Crusade
With Constantinople occupied, claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centers of resistance: The Laskarid dynasty in the Empire of Nicaea, the Komnenid dynasty in the Empire of Trebizond and the Doukid dynasty in the Despotate of Epirus. In 1248, Epirus recognized the Nicaean emperors, who subsequently recaptured Constantinople in 1261. The Trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in Constantinople in 1281,[5] but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in Trebizond thereafter.
Holy Roman Empire
The Emperor of the Romans' title was a reflection of the translatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Roman Empire in the east, hence the problem of two emperors.
From the time of
The Holy Roman emperor was considered the first among those in power. He was also the first defender of Christianity. From 1452 to the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except in the years 1742 to 1745) only members of the House of Habsburg were Holy Roman emperors. Karl von Habsburg is currently the head of the House of Habsburg.[6][7][8]
Austrian Empire
The first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor,
The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it was never clear what territory constituted the "
The Kaisers of the Austrian Empire (1804–1918) were Franz I (1804–1835), Ferdinand I (1835–1848), Franz Joseph I (1848–1916) and Karl I (1916–1918). The current head of the House of Habsburg is Karl von Habsburg.[11][12]
Emperors of Europe
This section needs additional citations for verification. (July 2020) |
Byzantium's close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighbors Bulgaria and Serbia, and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to the adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries.
Bulgaria
In 913, Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor (Tsar, originally more fully Tsesar, cěsar') of his own people by the Patriarch of Constantinople and Imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside the Byzantine capital.[13] In its final expanded form, under the Second Bulgarian Empire the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks" (Цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци, Car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci in the modern vernacular).[14] The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over Greek speakers and the derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court.
Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming the title "Emperor of the Romans" (basileus tōn Rōmaiōn), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" (basileus tōn Boulgarōn) by the Byzantine Emperor
After Bulgaria obtained full independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styled Knyaz, Prince, took the traditional title of Tsar, this time translated as King. Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the former Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria.[19]
France
The kings of the
First French Empire
Napoleon Bonaparte, who was already First Consul of the French Republic (Premier Consul de la République française) for life, declared himself Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français) on 18 May 1804, thus creating the French Empire (Empire Français).[20]
Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on 11 April 1814. Napoleon's infant son,
Elba
Since 3 May 1814, the Sovereign Principality of Elba was created as a miniature non-hereditary monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814), Napoleon I was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life. The islands were not restyled an empire.
On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for a
Second French Empire
Napoleon I's nephew,
The role of head of the House of Bonaparte is claimed by Jean-Christophe Napoléon and Charles Napoléon.
Iberian Peninsula
Spain
The origin of the title
King
The title was not exactly hereditary but self-proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of the Iberian Peninsula, often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso VII's death in 1157, the title was abandoned, and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been "emperors", in Spanish or other historiography.
After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, the legitimate heir to the throne,
Portugal
After the independence and proclamation of the
Great Britain
In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of the barracks emperors in Rome, there were two
England
There was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning with
During the rule of
United Kingdom
In 1801,
The last Empress of India was George VI's wife, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.
German Empire
Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to
After his death he was succeeded by his son
Russia
In 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor,
On 31 October 1721, Peter I was proclaimed Emperor by the Governing Senate. The title used was Latin "Imperator", which is a westernizing form equivalent to the traditional Slavic title "Tsar". He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in 1717 written in 1514 from Maximilian I to Vasili III, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili.
A formal address to the ruling Russian monarch adopted thereafter was 'Your Imperial Majesty'. The crown prince was addressed as 'Your Imperial Highness'.
The title has not been used in Russia since the abdication of Emperor
The Russian Empire produced four reigning Empresses, all in the eighteenth century.
The role of head of the House of Romanov is claimed by Grand Duchess Maria Vladimirovna of Russia (Great-great-granddaughter of Alexander II of Russia), Prince Andrew Romanoff (great-great-grandson of Nicholas I of Russia), and Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen (Great-grandson of Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia).
Serbia
In 1345, the Serbian King
Ottoman Empire
Ottoman rulers held many titles and appellations denoting their Imperial status. These included: Sultan of Sultans, Padishah, and Hakan.
The full style of the Ottoman sultan once the empire's frontiers had stabilized became:[30][31]
Sultan (given name)
many others countries and cities.
After the
Emperors in the Americas
Pre-Columbian traditions
The Aztec and Inca traditions are unrelated to one another. Both were conquered under the reign of King
Aztec Empire
The only
The Triple Alliance was an
Inca Empire
The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the
Post-Columbian Americas
Brazil
When
In 1808, under a British naval escort, the fleet arrived in Brazil. Later, in 1815, the Portuguese Prince Regent (since 1816 King João VI) proclaimed the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves, as a union of three kingdoms, lifting Brazil from its colonial status.
After the fall of Napoleon I and the
The empire came to an end in 1889, with the overthrow of Emperor Pedro II (Pedro I's son and successor), when the Brazilian republic was proclaimed.
Today the headship of the Imperial House of Brazil is disputed between two branches of the House of Orléans-Braganza.
Haiti
Haiti was declared an empire by its ruler, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who made himself Jacques I, on 20 May 1805. He was assassinated the next year.[33] Haiti again became an empire from 1849 to 1859 under Faustin Soulouque.
Mexico
In Mexico, the
Ferdinand VII, however, did not recognize the independence and said that Spain would not allow any other European prince to take the throne of Mexico. By request of Parliament, the president of the regency
In 1863, the invading French, under
This empire led to French influence in the Mexican culture and also
Middle East
In Persia, from the time of Darius the Great, Persian rulers used the title "King of Kings" (Shahanshah in Persian) since they had dominion over peoples from the borders of India to the borders of Greece and Egypt.[35] Alexander the Great probably crowned himself shahanshah after conquering Persia,[36] bringing the phrase basileus ton basileon to Greek. It is also known that Tigranes the Great, king of Armenia, was named as the king of kings when he made his empire after defeating the Parthians. Georgian title "mephet'mephe" has the same meaning.
The last shahanshah (
The title King of Kings takes various forms depending on the language, and was used not only in Iran but also in countries surrounding Iran.
- Šar Šarrāni, the king of kings form of Šar, used in Assyria, Babylon, etc.
- , etc.
- Basileus Basileōn, the king of kings form of Basileus, used in Macedonia, Byzantine, etc.
- , etc.
- Sultan of Sultans, the king of kings form of Sultan, used in Ottoman, Delhi, etc.
- Malik al-Muluk, the king of kings form of Malik, used in Palmyra, Buyid, etc.
- .
- .
Indian subcontinent
Samrajya system
In the Vedic period, there was a federal imperial system called the Samrajya system and Samrat (hi:सम्राट्) was the title of the emperor of that system.[37]
Those monarchs, who could bring under subjection many kings like
Chandragupta of the Maurya Empire is referred to as the first emperor of the mostly unified Indian subcontinent.[39]
Pravarasena I was the only Vakataka ruler to be called Samrat.[40]
The title for an empress regnant is Samrajyi (साम्राज्ञी).[41]
Chakravarti system
Another type of
The first references to a Chakravartin as a secular monarch appear in reference to Ashoka of the Maurya Empire.[42]
The Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line claimed Chakravartin status.[43]
The feminine form of Chakravarti is Chakravartini.
Delhi Sultanate
From 1206 to 1526 most of the Indian subcontinent was dominated by the Muslim Delhi Sultanate, whose monarchs used the title Sultan of Sultans.
Mughal Empire
From the 14th century until the 19th century the Indian subcontinent was dominated by predominantly Muslim rulers like the Mughals, whose rulers used the title Shahenshah and Padishah (or Badshah).
British Raj
When the British monarchs ruled over India, they adopted the additional title of
Africa
Ethiopia
This article needs additional citations for verification. (February 2012) |
From 1270 the Solomonic dynasty of Ethiopia used the title Nəgusä Nägäst, literally "King of Kings". The use of the king of kings style began a millennium earlier in this region, however, with the title being used by the kings of Aksum, beginning with Sembrouthes in the 3rd century.
Another title used by this dynasty was Itegue Zetopia. Itegue translates as Empress, and was used by the only reigning Empress,
In 1936, the Italian king
The current head of the Solomonic dynasty is Zera Yacob Amha Selassie.
Central African Empire
In 1976, President Jean-Bédel Bokassa of the Central African Republic, proclaimed the country to be an autocratic Central African Empire, and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I. The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored.[45]
East Asian tradition
This section needs additional citations for verification. (June 2015) |
皇帝 is the title of emperors in East Asia. An emperor is called Huángdì in Chinese, Hwangje in Korean, Hoàng đế in Vietnamese, and Kōtei in Japanese, but these are all just their respective pronunciations of the Chinese character 皇帝. But, the Japanese call only their emperors with the special title Tennō.
The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such. The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.
China
The
In 221 BC,
The imperial title continued in China until the
In general, an emperor would have one empress (Huanghou, 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a
Under the tributary system of China, monarchs of Korea and Vietnam sometimes called themselves emperor in their country. They introduced themselves as king for China and other countries (Emperor at home, king abroad). In Japan, Ashikaga Yoshimitsu a shogun was granted title of King of Japan for trade by the Ming emperor. However, the Shogun was a subject of the Japanese emperor. It was contrary to rules of tributary system, but the Ming emperor connived it for the purpose of suppressing the Wokou.
Japan
The earliest emperor recorded in Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is Emperor Jimmu, who is said to be a descendant of Amaterasu's grandson Ninigi who descended from Heaven (Tenson kōrin). If one believes what is written in Nihon Shoki, the emperors have an unbroken direct male lineage that goes back more than 2,600 years.[47]
In ancient Japan, the earliest titles for the sovereign were either ヤマト大王/大君 (yamato ōkimi, Grand King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (waō/wakokuō, King of Wa, used externally), or 治天下大王 (amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi, Grand King who rules all under heaven, used internally).
In 607, Empress Suiko sent a diplomatic document to China, which she wrote "the emperor of the land of the rising sun (日出處天子) sends a document to the emperor of the land of the setting sun (日沒處天子)" and began to use the title emperor externally.[48] As early as the 7th century, the word 天皇 (which can be read either as sumera no mikoto, divine order, or as tennō, Heavenly Emperor, the latter being derived from a Tang Chinese term referring to the Pole star around which all other stars revolve) began to be used. The earliest use of this term is found on a wooden slat, or mokkan, unearthed in Asuka-mura, Nara Prefecture in 1998. The slat dated back to the reign of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō.[49] The reading 'Tennō' has become the standard title for the Japanese sovereign up to the present age. The term 帝 (mikado, Emperor) is also found in literary sources.
In the Japanese language, the word tennō is restricted to Japan's own monarch; kōtei (皇帝) is usually used for foreign emperors. Historically,
After World War II, all claims of divinity were dropped (see
As of the early 21st century, Japan's succession law prohibits a female from ascending the throne. With the birth of a
Emperor Naruhito is the 126th monarch according to Japan's
Korea
Some rulers of
The rulers of Balhae (698–926) internally called themselves Seongwang (성왕; 聖王; lit. "Holy King").[53]
The rulers of Goryeo (918–1392) used the titles of emperor and Son of Heaven of the East of the Ocean (해동천자; 海東天子). Goryeo's imperial system ended in 1270 with capitulation to the Mongol Empire.[54]
In 1897,
Mongolia
The title Khagan (khan of khans or grand khan) was held by Genghis Khan, founder of the Mongol Empire in 1206; he also formally took the Chinese title huangdi, as "Genghis Emperor" (成吉思皇帝; Chéngjísī Huángdì ). Only the Khagans from Genghis Khan to the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 are normally referred to as emperors in English.
Vietnam
Đại Việt Kingdom (40–43, 544–602, 938–1407, 1427–1945) (The first ruler of Vietnam to take the title of Emperor (Hoàng Đế) was the founder of the Early Lý dynasty, Lý Nam Đế, in the year AD 544)
Ngô Quyền, the first ruler of Đại Việt as an independent state, used the title Vương (王, King). However, after the death of Ngô Quyền, the country immersed in a civil war known as Anarchy of the 12 Warlords that lasted for over 20 years. In the end, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh unified the country after defeating all the warlords and became the first ruler of Đại Việt to use the title Hoàng Đế (皇帝, Emperor) in 968. Succeeding rulers in Vietnam then continued to use this Emperor title until 1806 when this title was stopped being used for a century.[56]
Đinh Bộ Lĩnh was not the first to claim the title of Đế (帝, Emperor). Before him,
The Vietnamese emperors also gave this title to their ancestors who were lords or influential figures in the previous dynasty, as did the Chinese emperors. This practice was one of the many indications that Vietnam considered itself an equal to China which remained intact up to the twentieth century.[57]
In 1802 the newly established Nguyễn dynasty requested canonization from the Chinese Jiaqing Emperor and received the title Quốc Vương (國王, King of a State) and the name of the country as Việt Nam (越南) instead Đại Việt (大越). To avoid unnecessary armed conflicts, the Vietnamese rulers accepted this in diplomatic relation and used the title Emperor only domestically. However, Vietnamese rulers never accepted the vassalage relationship with China and always refused to come to Chinese courts to pay homage to Chinese rulers (a sign of vassalage acceptance). China waged a number of wars against Vietnam throughout history, and after each failure, settled for the tributary relationship. The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan waged three wars against Vietnam to force it into a vassalage relationship but after successive failures, Kublai Khan's successor, Temür Khan, finally settled for a tributary relationship with Vietnam. Vietnam sent tributary missions to China once in three years (with some periods of disruptions) until the 19th century, Sino-French War France replaced China in control of northern Vietnam.[58]
The emperors of the last dynasty of Vietnam continued to hold this title until the French conquered Vietnam. The emperor, however, was then a puppet figure only and could easily be disposed of by the French for more pro-France figure. Japan took Vietnam from France and the Axis-occupied Vietnam was declared an empire by the Japanese in March 1945. The line of emperors came to an end with Bảo Đại, who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of South Vietnam from 1949 to 1955.[59]
Fictional uses
There have been many fictional emperors in movies and books. To see a list of these emperors, see Category of fictional emperors and empresses.
See also
- Auctoritas – Roman prestige; contrast with power, imperium
- Lists of emperors
- Tlatoani – Ruler of an Mesoamerica āltepētl (city-state)
- Emperor Norton – Self-proclaimed Emperor of the United States (1818–1880)
Notes
- ^ Before the emergence of the modern country of Spain (beginning with the union of Castile and Aragon in 1492), the Latin word Hispania, in any of the Iberian Romance languages, either in singular or plural forms (in English: Spain or Spains), was used to refer to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula, and not exclusively, as in modern usage, to the country of Spain, thus excluding Portugal.
- ^ Agostino never saw the Sultan, but probably did see and sketch the helmet in Venice.
References
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- ^ Peng, Ying-chen. "The Forbidden City". Khan Academy.
- George Ostrogorsky, "Avtokrator i samodržac", Glas Srpske kraljevske akadamije CLXIV, Drugi razdred 84 (1935), 95–187.
- ^ Nicol, Donald MacGillivray, The Last Centuries of Byzantium, second edition (Cambridge: University Press, 1993), p. 74.
- ^ Heer, Friedrich. Holy Roman Empire (2002); Lonnie Johnson "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" (2011), p. 81.
- ^ "The Holy Roman Empire".
- ^ "Heiliges Römisches Reich : Geschichte der staatlichen Emanzipation". 27 August 2006.
- ^ liamfoley63 (6 August 2020). "August 6, 1806. Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire". European Royal History. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
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: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Friedrich Heer "Der Kampf um die österreichische Identität" (1981), p. 259.
- ^ Lonnie Johnson "Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends" (2011), p. 118.
- ^ Anatol Murad "Franz Joseph I of Austria and his Empire." (1968) p. 1.
- ^ Mladjov 2015: 171–177.
- ^ Charters of Ivan Alexander and Ivan Shishman, in Petkov 2008: 500, 506–507.
- ^ Mladjov 2015: 177–178.
- ^ Mladjov 1999.
- ^ Prinzing 1973: 420–421.
- ^ Kaimakamova 2006.
- ^ "Bulgaria's Former King and PM Simeon II Celebrates his 80th Birthday".
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- ^ Napoleon, Frank McLynn, p644, Pimlico 1998.
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- ^ liamfoley63 (12 November 2019). "History of Styles and Titles Part IV: Emperor of Britain". European Royal History. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
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- ^ "Treaty of Frankfurt am Main ends Franco-Prussian War". HISTORY. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ Fine 1987: 309–310.
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- ^ "Turkish And Ottoman Nobility And Royalty | Nobility Titles – Genuine Titles Of Nobility For Sale". Nobility Titles. 10 January 2018. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ Lockhart (2001, p.238); Schroeder (2007, p. 3). See also the entry for "TLAHTOANI" Archived 2007-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, in Wimmer (2006).
- ^ "Jean-Jacques Dessalines". Biography. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ "Mexican Historical Figures: Maximilian I". WeExpats. 24 July 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ "Darius I". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ Nick Kampouris in The Astounding, Immortal Story of Alexander the Great https://greekreporter.com/2019/01/30/the-astounding-immortal-story-of-alexander-the-great/ 30 Jan 2019.
- ^ ISBN 978-93-5253-132-5.
- ^ Luniya, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978). Life and Culture in Ancient India: From the Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. p. 130.
- ^ Chandragupta in the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
Pravarasena I was the only Vakataka king with the imperial title samrat; the others had the relatively modest title maharaja.
- ^ "RBSE Class 7 English Vocabulary Gender". 9 April 2019.
- ^ Chakravartin in the Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^ Burton Stein (1980). Peasant state and society in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 70.
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- ^ "Manchukuo | puppet state created by Japan in China [1932]". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2 June 2019.
- ^ Hays, Jeffrey. "JAPANESE EMPEROR AND IMPERIAL FAMILY | Facts and Details". factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- ^ Satoshi Yabuuchi, 時代背景から知る 仏像の秘密, The Nikkei, 10 October 2019.
- ^ Masataka Kondo, ご存知ですか 3月2日は飛鳥池遺跡で「天皇」木簡が出土したと発表された日です, 2 March 2018.
- ^ Henry Kissinger on China. 2011, p. 79.
- ^ Although the Emperor of Japan is classified as constitutional monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as 'a symbol of the nation' and no subsequent legislation states his status as the Head of state or equates the Crown synonymously with any government establishment.
- ^ "Japan Imperial Succession".
- ^ New Book of Tang, vol. 209
- ISBN 978-0822353720. Retrieved 3 November 2018.
- ISBN 978-0-7352-2116-1.
- S2CID 148779423.
- ISBN 978-0-299-21770-9
- ^ Hurst, Ryan (20 May 2009). "Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970) •". Retrieved 8 June 2023.
- ^ "Vietnam: A Television History; America's Mandarin (1954–1963); Interview with Ngo Dinh Luyen". openvault.wgbh.org. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
Further reading
- Bryce, James, 1st Viscount (1878). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VIII (9th ed.). pp. 179–180.
{{cite encyclopedia}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Fine, J. V. A., Jr., The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest, Ann Arbor, 1987.
- Kaimakamova, M., "Turnovo – New Constantinople: The Third Rome in the Fourteench-Century Bulgarian Translation of Constantine Manasses' Synopsis Chronike," The Medieval Chronicle 4 (2006) 91–104. online
- Mladjov, I. S. R., "Between Byzantium and Rome: Bulgaria in the aftermath of the Photian Schism," Byzantine Studies/Études Byzantines 4 (n.s.) (1999) 173–181. online
- Mladjov, I. S. R., "The Crown and the Veil: Titles, Spiritual Kinship, and Diplomacy in Tenth-Century Bulgaro-Byzantine Relations," History Compass 13 (2015) 171–183. online
- Petkov, K., The Voices of Medieval Bulgaria, Seventh-Fifteenth Century, Leiden, 2008.
- Prinzing, G., "Der Brief Kaiser Heinrichs von Konstantinopel vom 13. Januar 1212," Byzantion 43 (1973) 395–431. online