Listeria

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
For the disease caused by Listeria, see Listeriosis.

Listeria
micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes bacterium in tissue
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Bacillota
Class: Bacilli
Order: Bacillales
Family: Listeriaceae
Genus: Listeria
Pirie 1940
Species

L. aquatica
L. booriae
L. cornellensis
L. costaricensis
L. farberi
L. fleischmannii
L. floridensis
L. goaensis
L. grandensis
L. grayi
L. ilorinensis
L. immobilis
L. innocua
L. ivanovii
L. marthii
L. monocytogenes
L. newyorkensis
L. riparia
L. rocourtiae
L. rustica
L. seeligeri
L. swaminathanii
L. thailandensis
L. valentina
L. weihenstephanensis
L. welshimeri

Listeria grown on agar medium
TEM micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria is a

newborns, adults with weakened immune systems and the elderly, and may cause gastroenteritis
in others who have been severely infected.

Listeriosis is a serious disease for humans; the overt form of the disease has a

case-fatality rate of around 20–30%. The two main clinical manifestations are sepsis and meningitis. Meningitis is often complicated by encephalitis, when it is known as meningoencephalitis, a pathology that is unusual for bacterial infections. L. ivanovii is a pathogen of mammals, specifically ruminants, and has rarely caused listeriosis in humans.[5] The incubation period can vary from three to 70 days.[6]

Background

In the late 1920s, two groups of researchers independently identified L. monocytogenes from animal outbreaks, naming it Bacterium monocytogenes.

slime mould and a protozoan. Eventually, the genus Listeria was proposed and accepted. The genus Listeria was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition (1957) of Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 16S rRNA cataloging studies demonstrated that L. monocytogenes is a distinct taxon within the Lactobacillus-Bacillus branch of the bacterial phylogeny[9] constructed by Woese. In 2004 the genus was placed in the newly created family Listeriaceae, of which the only other genus in the family is Brochothrix.[10][11] The first documented human case of listeriosis was in 1929, described by the Danish physician Aage Nyfeldt.[12]

The genus Listeria as of 2024[update] is known to contain 28 species, classified into two groups: sensu stricto and sensu lato.[13][3] Listeria sensu strictu contains L. monocytogenes alongside nine other closely related species: L. cossartiae,[14] L. farberi, L. immobilis,[14] L. innocua, L. ivanovii,[15] L. marthii,[16] L. seeligeri, L. swaminathanii[17] and L. welshimeri. Listeria sensu lato contains the remaining 18 species: L. aquatica,[18] L. booriae,[19] L. cornellensis,[18] L. costaricensis,[20] L. fleischmannii,[21] L. floridensis,[18] L. goaensis,[22] L. grandensis,[18] L. grayi, L. ilorinensis,[23] L. newyorkensis,[19] L. portnoyi,[14] L. riparia,[18] L. rocourtiae,[24] L. rustica,[14] L. thailandensis,[25] L. valentina[26] and L. weihenstephanensis.[27] Listeria dinitrificans, previously thought to be part of the genus Listeria, was reclassified into the new genus Jonesia.[28]

All species within the genus Listeria are

Flagella are produced at room temperature, but not at 37 °C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish L. monocytogenes from other Listeria species, but it is not an absolutely definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of Listeria.[citation needed
]

Listeria can be found in soil, which can lead to vegetable contamination. Animals can be carriers. Listeria has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruits including

unpasteurized milk, foods made from milk, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill Listeria; however, contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. For example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent Listeria contamination.[31] Listeria monocytogenes is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, and food.[32] Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne illness. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%.[33] (Salmonellosis, in comparison, has a mortality rate estimated at less than 1%.[34]) Although L. monocytogenes has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from 4 °C (39.2 °F) (the temperature of a refrigerator) to 37 °C (98.6 °F), (the body's internal temperature).[32] Listeriosis is a serious illness, and the disease may manifest as meningitis, or affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the placenta.[33]

Pathogenesis

Main articles: Listeriosis and Listeria monocytogenes § Pathogenesis

Listeria uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of actin by the ActA transmembrane protein, thus pushing the bacterial cell around.[35]

Listeria monocytogenes, for example, encodes virulence genes that are

thermoregulated. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39 °C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the PrfA thermoregulator UTR element. At low temperatures, the PrfA transcript is not translated due to structural elements near the ribosome binding site. As the bacteria infect the host, the temperature of the host denatures the structure and allows translation initiation for the virulent genes.[citation needed
]

The majority of Listeria bacteria are attacked by the immune system before they are able to cause infection. Those that escape the immune system's initial response, however, spread through intracellular mechanisms, which protects them from circulating immune factors (AMI).[33]

To invade, Listeria induces macrophage phagocytic uptake by displaying D-galactose in their teichoic acids that are then bound by the macrophage's polysaccharides. Other important adhesins are the internalins.[34] Listeria uses internalin A and B to bind to cellular receptors. Internalin A binds to E-cadherin, while internalin B binds to the cell's Met receptors. If both of these receptors have a high enough affinity to Listeria's internalin A and B, then it will be able to invade the cell via an indirect zipper mechanism.[citation needed] Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is encapsulated by the host cell's acidic phagolysosome organelle.[32] Listeria, however, escapes the phagolysosome by lysing the vacuole's entire membrane with secreted hemolysin,[36] now characterized as the exotoxin listeriolysin O.[32] The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell's cytoplasm.[33]

Listeria must then navigate to the cell's periphery to spread the infection to other cells. Outside the body, Listeria has

filopods[32] or "rockets". The protrusions are guided by the cell's leading edge[39] to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the Listeria rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection.[33] Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an intracellular parasite[36] like S. flexneri, Rickettsia spp., and C. trachomatis.[33]

Epidemiology

The

chicken wraps to the airline Virgin Blue in 2011.[46] Caramel apples have also been cited as a source of listerial infections which hospitalized 26 people, of whom five died.[47][48] In 2019, the United Kingdom experienced nine cases of the disease, of which six[49] were fatal, in an outbreak caused by contaminated meat (produced by North Country Cooked Meats) in hospital sandwiches.[50] In 2019, two people in Australia died after probably eating smoked salmon and a third fell ill but survived the disease.[51] In September 2019, three deaths and a miscarriage were reported in the Netherlands after the consumption of listeria-infected deli meats produced by Offerman.[52]

Prevention

Preventing listeriosis as a

Quaternary ammonium
can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food-contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action.

Keeping foods in the home refrigerated below 4 °C (39 °F) discourages bacterial growth. Unpasteurized dairy products may pose a risk.[54] Cooking all meats (including beef, pork, poultry, and seafood) to a safe internal temperature, typically 73 °C (165 °F), will kill the food-borne pathogen.[55]

Treatment

Non-invasive listeriosis: bacteria are retained within the digestive tract. Symptoms are mild, lasting only a few days and requiring only supportive care. Muscle pain and fever can be treated with over-the-counter pain relievers; diarrhea and gastroenteritis can be treated with over-the-counter medications.[55]

Invasive listeriosis: bacteria have spread to the bloodstream and central nervous system. Treatment includes intravenous delivery of high-dose

Cephalosporins are not effective for treating listeriosis.[56]

In cases of pregnancy, prompt treatment is critical to prevent bacteria from infecting the

ultrasound scans
to monitor the health of the fetus.

Asymptomatic patients who have been exposed to Listeria typically are not treated, but are informed of the signs and symptoms of the disease and advised to return for treatment if any develop.[55]

Research

Some Listeria species are opportunistic pathogens: L. monocytogenes is most prevalent in the elderly, pregnant mothers, and patients infected with HIV. With improved healthcare leading to a growing elderly population and extended life expectancies for HIV infected patients, physicians are more likely to encounter this otherwise-rare infection (only seven per 1,000,000 healthy people are infected with virulent Listeria each year).[32] Better understanding the cell biology of Listeria infections, including relevant virulence factors, may lead to better treatments for listeriosis and other intracytoplasmic parasite infections.

In oncology, researchers are investigating the use of Listeria as a cancer vaccine, taking advantage of its "ability to induce potent innate and adaptive immunity" by activating gamma delta T cells. [37][59]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Boerlin et al. 1992. L. ivanovii subsp. londoniensis subsp. novi. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42:69-73. Jones, D., and H.P.R. Seeliger. 1986. International committee on systematic bacteriology. Subcommittee the taxonomy of Listeria. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 36:117-118.
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Further reading

External links

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