Mangrove
A mangrove is a
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, shrubs and ferns also called halophytes, and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud,[3] but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone.[4]
The mangrove
Beginning in 2010, remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around the world.[7][1][2] In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km2 (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories.[2][7] A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km2 (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019.[8] Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with a global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern.[2]
There is interest in
The International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem is celebrated every year on 26 July.[11]
Etymology
Etymology of the English term mangrove can only be speculative and is disputed.[12]: 1–2 [13] The term may have come to English from the Portuguese mangue or the Spanish mangle.[13] Further back, it may be traced to South America and Cariban and Arawakan languages[14] such as Taíno.[15] Other possibilities include the Malay language manggi-manggi[13][12] The English usage may reflect a corruption via folk etymology of the words mangrow and grove.[14][12][16]
The word "mangrove" is used in at least three senses:
- Most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant assemblage or mangal,[13][17] for which the terms mangrove forest biome and mangrove swamp are also used;
- To refer to all trees and large shrubs in a mangrove swamp;[13] and
- Narrowly to refer only to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora of the family Rhizophoraceae.[18]
Biology
According to Hogarth (2015), among the recognized mangrove species there are about 70 species in 20 genera from 16
Adaptations to low oxygen
The red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through lenticels in its bark.[21] The black mangrove ( These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm (12 in), and in some species, over 3 m (9.8 ft). The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants.[citation needed]
Nutrient uptake
Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available.
Limiting salt intake
Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots that are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin), acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from the rest of the plant.[citation needed] One study found that roots of the Indian mangrove Avicennia officinalis exclude 90% to 95% of the salt in water taken up by the plant, depositing the excluded salt in the cortex of the root. An increase in the production of suberin and in the activity of a gene regulating cytochrome P450 were observed in correlation with an increase in the salinity of the water to which the plant was exposed.[24] In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research on the Red mangrove Rhizophora mangle suggests that the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves.[25]
-
Pneumatophorous aerial roots of the grey mangrove (Avicennia marina)
-
Vivipary in Rhizophora mangle seeds
Limiting water loss
Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their
Filtration of seawater
A 2016 study by Kim et al. investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove
Uptake of Na+ ions is desirable for halophytes to build up
Increasing survival of offspring
In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove
The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions.
Taxonomy and evolution
The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give the mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family.[38] Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction.[39]
True mangroves
True mangroves (major components or strict mangroves) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Following Tomlinson, 2016, the following 35 species are the true mangroves, contained in 5 families and 9 genera[38]: 29–30 Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson | ||||
Family | Genus | Mangrove species | Common name | |
Arecaceae | Monotypic subfamily within the family | |||
Nypa | Nypa fruticans | Mangrove palm | ||
Avicenniaceae (disputed) |
Old monogeneric family, now subsumed in Acanthaceae, but clearly isolated | |||
Avicennia | Avicennia alba | |||
Avicennia balanophora | ||||
Avicennia bicolor | ||||
Avicennia integra | ||||
Avicennia marina | grey mangrove (subspecies: australasica, eucalyptifolia, rumphiana) |
|||
Avicennia officinalis | Indian mangrove | |||
Avicennia germinans | black mangrove | |||
Avicennia schaueriana | ||||
Avicennia tonduzii
|
||||
Combretaceae | Tribe Lagunculariae (including Macropteranthes = non-mangrove) | |||
Laguncularia | Laguncularia racemosa
|
white mangrove | ||
Lumnitzera | Lumnitzera racemosa | white-flowered black mangrove | ||
Lumnitzera littorea | ||||
Rhizophoraceae | Rhizophoraceae collectively form the tribe Rhizophorae, a monotypic group, within the otherwise terrestrial family | |||
Bruguiera | Bruguiera cylindrica | |||
Bruguiera exaristata | rib-fruited mangrove | |||
Bruguiera gymnorhiza | oriental mangrove | |||
Bruguiera hainesii | ||||
Bruguiera parviflora | ||||
Bruguiera sexangula | upriver orange mangrove | |||
Ceriops | Ceriops australis | yellow mangrove | ||
Ceriops tagal | spurred mangrove | |||
Kandelia | Kandelia candel | |||
Kandelia obovata | ||||
Rhizophora | Rhizophora apiculata | |||
Rhizophora harrisonii | ||||
Rhizophora mangle | red mangrove | |||
Rhizophora mucronata | Asiatic mangrove | |||
Rhizophora racemosa | ||||
Rhizophora samoensis
|
Samoan mangrove | |||
Rhizophora stylosa | spotted mangrove, | |||
Rhizophora x lamarckii
|
||||
Lythraceae | Sonneratia | Sonneratia alba | ||
Sonneratia apetala
|
||||
Sonneratia caseolaris | ||||
Sonneratia ovata | ||||
Sonneratia griffithii
|
Minor components
Minor components | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Tomlinson, 2016, lists about 19 species as minor mangrove components, contained in 10 families and 11 genera[38]: 29–30 Included on green backgrounds are annotations about the genera made by Tomlinson | ||||
Family | Genus | Species | Common name | |
Euphorbiaceae | This genus includes about 35 non-mangrove taxa | |||
Excoecaria | Excoecaria agallocha | milky mangrove, blind-your-eye mangrove and river poison tree | ||
Lythraceae | Genus distinct in the family | |||
Pemphis | Pemphis acidula | bantigue or mentigi | ||
Malvaceae | Formerly in Bombacaceae, now an isolated genus in subfamily Bombacoideeae | |||
Camptostemon | Camptostemon schultzii
|
kapok mangrove | ||
Camptostemon philippinense
|
||||
Meliaceae | Genus of 3 species, one non-mangrove, forms tribe Xylocarpaeae with Carapa, a non–mangrove | |||
Xylocarpus | Xylocarpus granatum | |||
Xylocarpus moluccensis | ||||
Myrtaceae | An isolated genus in the family | |||
Osbornia | Osbornia octodonta
|
mangrove myrtle | ||
Pellicieraceae
|
Monotypic genus and family of uncertain phylogenetic position | |||
Pelliciera | Pelliciera rhizophorae
|
tea mangrove | ||
Plumbaginaceae | Isolated genus, at times segregated as family Aegialitidaceae
| |||
Aegialitis | Aegialitis annulata
|
club mangrove | ||
Aegialitis rotundifolia | ||||
Primulaceae | Formerly an isolated genus in Myrsinaceae
| |||
Aegiceras | Aegiceras corniculatum | black mangrove, river mangrove or khalsi | ||
Aegiceras floridum
|
||||
Pteridaceae | A fern somewhat isolated in its family | |||
Acrostichum | Acrostichum aureum | golden leather fern, swamp fern or mangrove fern | ||
Acrostichum speciosum | mangrove fern | |||
Rubiaceae | A genus isolated in the family | |||
Scyphiphora | Scyphiphora hydrophylacea
|
nilad |
Species distribution
Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions.[38]: 57
"At the limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic Avicennia-dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of the North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as Avicennia marina var. australis, although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, A. marina extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby Avicennia gerrninans in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on the west. There are records of A. germinans and Rhizophora mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan, Kandelia obovata occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as K. candel)."[38]: 57
Mangrove forests
Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps or mangals, are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangroves occur include estuaries and marine shorelines.[19]
The
At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community.[2][4]
About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp,[19] though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora. However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna.[42]
Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity, and frequent tidal flooding. Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings.[43]
Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine,
Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones), and tsunamis.[45][46][47] They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis.[48]
The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy.
The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine habitat for young organisms.
Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse food webs. The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as a critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play a crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs.[55]
Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring. Lemon Sharks depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of predation to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering the food web of the Ocean.[56]
Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans.[57]
The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are egrets, kingfishers, herons, and hornbills, among many others dependent on ecological range.[58] Bird predation plays a key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems.
Mangrove forests can decay into
In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with a higher concentration of white mangroves.
Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon. Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 Gt (9.2×1012 lb) of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710×1011 lb) of emissions of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere.[61]
Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms.[62]
Mangrove microbiome
Root microbiome
Mangrove roots harbour a repertoire of
The taxonomic class level shows that most
Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants,[85] where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere,[75][86][87] episphere,[75] rhizosphere,[86][88] and nonrhizosphere.[89][90] Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics.[75][86] The rhizosphere could emit root exudates that selectively enriched specific microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in the nonrhizosphere soil.[91][77] Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root,[75] resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere.[75][92] These findings provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities,[75][91][77][92] Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide the functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling.[93] Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning.[78]
The diversity of bacteria in disturbed mangroves are reported to be higher than in well-preserved mangroves[79] Studies comparing mangroves in different conservation states show that bacterial composition in disturbed mangrove sediment alters its structure leading to a functional equilibrium, where the dynamics of chemicals in mangrove soils lead to the remodeling of its microbial structure.[94]
Suggestions for future mangrove microbial diversity research
Despite many research advancements in mangrove sediment bacterial metagenomics diversity in various conditions over the past few years, bridging the research gap and expanding our knowledge towards the relationship between microbes mainly constituted of bacteria and its nutrient cycles in the mangrove sediment and direct and indirect impacts on mangrove growth and stand-structures as coastal barriers and other ecological service providers. Thus, based on studies by Lai et al.'s systematic review, here they suggest sampling improvements and a fundamental environmental index for future reference.[79]
Mangrove virome
Mangrove forests are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Viruses are thought to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles, though as of 2019 little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems.[95]
Viruses are the most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems.
It is presumed AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses.
Mangrove forests are the only woody halophytes that live in salt water along the world's subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs.[115] As a globally relevant component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year.[115][116] Most mangrove carbon is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests.[117] Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth's coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans.[118] The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions.[95]
Despite the ecological importance of mangrove ecosystem, knowledge on mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora and bacterial communities.[120][121][122] Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their roles in mangrove soil ecosystems.[123][124] In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems is essential. Additionally, the intermittent flooding of sea water and resulting sharp transition of mangrove environments may result in substantially different genetic and functional diversity of bacterial and viral communities in mangrove soils compared with those of other systems.[125][95]
Genome sequencing
- Rhizophoreae as revealed by whole-genome sequencing[126]
See also
- Coastal management
- Ecological values of mangrove
- Keystone species
- Adelaida K. Semesi
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Further reading
- Saenger, Peter (2002). Mangrove Ecology, Silviculture, and Conservation. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. ISBN 1-4020-0686-1.
- UNDP/UNESCO and the French Institute of Pondicherry, ISSN 0073-8336 (E).
- Tomlinson, Philip B. (1986). The Botany of Mangroves. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-25567-8.
- Teas, H. J. (1983). Biology and Ecology of Mangroves. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. ISBN 90-6193-948-8.
- Plaziat, Jean-Claude; Cavagnetto, Carla; Koeniguer, Jean-Claude; Baltzer, Frédéric (2001). "History and biogeography of the mangrove ecosystem, based on a critical reassessment of the paleontological record". Wetlands Ecology and Management. 9 (3): 161–180. S2CID 24980831.
- Jayatissa, L. P.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F.; Koedam, N. (2002). "A review of the floral composition and distribution of mangroves in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 138: 29–43. .
- Ellison, Aaron M. (2000). "Mangrove Restoration: Do We Know Enough?". Restoration Ecology. 8 (3): 219–229. S2CID 86352384.
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- Bowen, Jennifer L.; Valiela, Ivan; York, Joanna K. (2001). "Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments". BioScience. 51 (10): 807–815. .
- Jin-Eong, Ong (2004). "The Ecology of Mangrove Conservation and Management". Hydrobiologia. 295 (1–3): 343–351. S2CID 26686381.
- Glenn, C. R. 2006. "Earth's Endangered Creatures"
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- Kuenzer, C.; Bluemel, A.; Gebhardt, S.; Vo Quoc, T. & Dech, S. (2011). "Remote Sensing of Mangrove Ecosystems: A Review". Remote Sensing. 3 (5): 878–928. .
- Lucien-Brun, H (1997). "Evolution of world shrimp production: Fisheries and aquaculture". World Aquaculture. 28: 21–33.
- Twilley, R. R., V. H. Rivera-Monroy, E. Medina, A. Nyman, J. Foret, T. Mallach, and L. Botero. 2000. Patterns of forest development in mangroves along the San Juan River estuary, Venezuela. Forest Ecology and Management
- Murray, M. R.; Zisman, S. A.; Furley, P. A.; Munro, D. M.; Gibson, J.; Ratter, J.; Bridgewater, S.; Mity, C. D.; Place, C. J. (2003). "The Mangroves of Belize: Part 1. Distribution, Composition and Classification". Forest Ecology and Management. 174 (1–3): 265–279. .
- Vo Quoc, T.; Kuenzer, C.; Vo Quang, M.; Moder, F. & Oppelt, N. (December 2012). "Review of Valuation Methods for Mangrove Ecosystem Services". Ecological Indicators. 23: 431–446. .
- Spalding, Mark; Kainuma, Mami and Collins, Lorna (2010) World Atlas of Mangroves Earthscan, London, ISBN 978-1-84407-657-4; 60 maps showing worldwide mangrove distribution
- Warne, Kennedy (2013) Let them eat shrimp: the tragic disappearance of the rainforests of the sea. Island Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1597263344
- Massó; Alemán, S.; Bourgeois, C.; Appeltans, W.; Vanhoorne, B.; De Hauwere, N.; Stoffelen, P.; Heaghebaert, A.; Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2010). "The 'Mangrove Reference Database and Herbarium'" (PDF). Plant Ecology and Evolution. 143 (2): 225–232. .
- Vo Quoc, T.; Oppelt, N.; Leinenkugel, P. & Kuenzer, C. (2013). "Remote Sensing in Mapping Mangrove Ecosystems – An Object-Based Approach". Remote Sensing. 5 (1): 183–201. .
External links
- "Mangrove Factsheet". Waitt Institute. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 8 June 2015.
- "Mangroves". Smithsonian Ocean Portal. 30 April 2018.
- Top 10 Mangrove Forest In The World – Travel Mate
- "Mangroves Fact Sheet" (PDF). Fisheries Western Australia. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2013.* Rhizophoraceae at Curlie
- Mangrove forests at Curlie
- In May 2011, the VOA Special English service of the Voice of America broadcast a 15-minute program on mangrove forests. A transcript and MP3 of the program, intended for English learners, can be found at Mangrove Forests Could Be a Big Player in Carbon Trading
- "Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean". Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
- "Ocean Data Viewer – UNEP-WCMC". UNEP-WCMC's official website – Ocean Data Viewer. Retrieved 27 November 2020.
- Queensland's coastal kidneys: mangroves. Stacey Larner, John Oxley Library Blog. State Library of Queensland.
- "Take Shelter - Mangroves work together to protect the Earth and its waters. What can they teach us about community and sacrifice?". Atmos. 16 February 2024.