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Antarctica

Area	14,200,000 km²[1] 5,500,000 sq mi
Population	1,000 to 5,000 (seasonal)
Population density	<0.01 per km² <0.01 per sq mi
Demonym	Antarctic
Internet TLD	.aq
Largest cities	Research stations McMurdo Station
UN M49 code	010

Antarctica (/ænˈtɑːrtɪkə/ or /ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ ^ⓘ)^{[note 1]} is Earth's southernmost continent. It contains the geographic South Pole and is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14,200,000 square kilometres (5,500,000 square miles), it is the fifth-largest continent and nearly twice the size of Australia. It is by far the least populated continent, with around 5,000 people in the summer and around 1,000 in the winter. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages 1.9 km (1.2 mi; 6,200 ft) in thickness,^[5] which extends to all but the McMurdo Dry Valleys and the northernmost reaches of the Antarctic Peninsula.^[6]

Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average

The name Antarctica is the romanised version of the Greek compound word ἀνταρκτική (antarktiké), feminine of ἀνταρκτικός (antarktikós),^[10] meaning "opposite to the Arctic", "opposite to the north".^[11][12]

Aristotle wrote in his book Meteorology about an Antarctic region in c. 350 BC.^[13] Marinus of Tyre reportedly used the name in his unpreserved world map from the 2nd century CE.^[14] The Roman authors Hyginus and Apuleius (1–2 centuries CE) used for the South Pole the romanised Greek name polus antarcticus,^[15][16] from which derived the Old French pole antartike (modern pôle antarctique) attested in 1270, and from there the Middle English pol antartik in a 1391 technical treatise by Geoffrey Chaucer, A Treatise on the Astrolabe, referring to the modern Antarctic Pole.^[17] Matthias Ringmann called Terra Australis the Ora antarctica (antarctic land) in 1505.^[18]

Change of name

The long-imagined (but undiscovered) south polar continent was originally called Terra Australis, sometimes shortened to Australia as seen in a woodcut illustration titled "Sphere of the winds", contained in an astrological textbook published in Frankfurt in 1545.^[19]

In the early 19th century, the colonial authorities in Sydney removed the Dutch name from New Holland. Instead of inventing a new name to replace it, they took the name Australia from the south polar continent, leaving it nameless for some eighty years. During that period, geographers had to make do with clumsy phrases such as "the Antarctic Continent". They searched for a more poetic replacement, suggesting various names such as Ultima and Antipodea.^[20] Eventually Antarctica was adopted as the continental name in the 1890s—the first use of the name is attributed to the Scottish cartographer John George Bartholomew.^[21]

History of exploration

Antarctica has no indigenous population.^[22] According to Māori oral history in New Zealand, Hui Te Rangiora (also known as Ūi Te Rangiora) and his crew explored Antarctic waters in the early seventh century on the vessel Te Ivi o Atea.^[23] Accounts name the area Te tai-uka-a-pia, which describes a 'frozen ocean' and 'arrowroot', which resembles fresh snow when scraped.^[23][24]

The oldest known human remains in Antarctica was a skull that belonged to a young

Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis—a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa—had prevailed since the times of Ptolemy in the 1st century AD. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size. Integral to the story of the origin of Antarctica's name is that it was not named Terra Australis—this name was given to Australia instead, because of the misconception that no significant landmass could exist further south. Explorer Matthew Flinders, in particular, has been credited with popularising the transfer of the name Terra Australis to Australia. He justified the titling of his book A Voyage to Terra Australis (1814) by writing in the introduction:

There is no probability, that any other detached body of land, of nearly equal extent, will ever be found in a more southern latitude; the name Terra Australis will, therefore, remain descriptive of the geographical importance of this country and of its situation on the globe: it has antiquity to recommend it; and, having no reference to either of the two claiming nations, appears to be less objectionable than any other which could have been selected.^[26]

European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain James Cook's ships,

According to various organisations (the National Science Foundation,^[30] NASA,^[31] the University of California, San Diego,^[32] the Russian State Museum of the Arctic and Antarctic,^[33] among others),^[34][35] ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica or its ice shelf in 1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Imperial Russian Navy, Edward Bransfield, a captain in the Royal Navy, and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sealer.^[36]

The First Russian Antarctic Expedition led by Bellingshausen and

On 22 January 1840, two days after the discovery of the coast west of the Balleny Islands, some members of the crew of the 1837–40 expedition of Jules Dumont d'Urville disembarked on the highest islet^[42] of a group of coastal rocky islands about 4 km from Cape Géodésie on the coast of Adélie Land where they took some mineral, algae, and animal samples, erected the French flag and claimed French sovereignty over the territory.^[43]

• 
  Discovery and claim of French sovereignty over Adélie Land by Jules Dumont d'Urville, in 1840.
• 
  Painting of James Weddell's second expedition in 1823, depicting the brig Jane and the cutter Beaufoy
• 
  Nimrod Expedition South Pole Party (left to right): Wild, Shackleton, Marshall and Adams

Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island (both of which were named after him) in 1841. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and Terror.^[44] Mercator Cooper landed in East Antarctica on 26 January 1853.^[45]

During the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907, parties led by

Richard E. Byrd led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanised land transport on the continent and conducting extensive geological and biological research.^[49] The first women to set foot on Antarctica were Caroline Mikkelsen, who landed on an island of Antarctica in 1935,^[50] and Ingrid Christensen who stepped onto the mainland in 1937.^[51][52][53]

It was not until 31 October 1956, that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral George J. Dufek successfully landed an aircraft there.^[54] The first women to step onto the South Pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969.^[55]

In the southern hemisphere summer of 1996–97 the Norwegian explorer Børge Ousland became the first person to cross Antarctica alone from coast to coast.^[56] Ousland got aid from a kite on parts of the distance. All attempted crossings, with no kites or resupplies, that have tried to go from the true continental edges, where the ice meets the sea, have failed due to the great distance that needs to be covered.^[57] For this crossing, Ousland also holds the record for the fastest unsupported journey to the South Pole, taking just 34 days.^[58]

• 
  Roald Amundsen and his crew looking at the Norwegian flag they had raised at the South Pole, 1911
• 
  The French Dumont d'Urville Station, an example of modern human settlement in Antarctica
• 
  In 1997 Børge Ousland became the first person to make a solo crossing.

Geography

Positioned asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle, Antarctica is the southernmost continent and is surrounded by the

Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea. The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and the remainder East Antarctica.^[60]

About 98% of Antarctica is covered by the

West Antarctica is covered by the

East Antarctica lies on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains and comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Wilkes Land, and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere. East Antarctica is largely covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet.^[65]

Antarctica is home to more than 70 lakes that lie at the base of the continental ice sheet. Lake Vostok, discovered beneath Russia's Vostok Station in 1996, is the largest of these subglacial lakes. It was once believed that the lake had been sealed off for 500,000 to one million years, but a recent survey suggests that, every so often, there are large flows of water from one lake to another.^[69]

There is some evidence, in the form of ice cores drilled to about 400 m (1,300 ft) above the water line, that Lake Vostok's waters may contain microbial life. The frozen surface of the lake shares similarities with Jupiter's moon Europa. If life is discovered in Lake Vostok, it would strengthen the argument for the possibility of life on Europa.^[70][71] In 2008, a NASA team embarked on a mission to Lake Untersee, searching for extremophiles in its highly alkaline waters. If found, highly resilient creatures could further bolster the argument for extraterrestrial life in extremely cold, methane-rich environments.^[72]

In September 2018, researchers at the

From the end of the Neoproterozoic to the Cretaceous, Antarctica formed part of the supercontinent Gondwana.^[75] Over time, Gondwana gradually broke apart, and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 25 million years ago, when the Drake Passage opened between it and South America.^[76] Antarctica was not always cold, dry, and covered in ice sheets. At a number of points in its history, it was farther north, experienced a tropical or temperate climate, and was covered in forests.^[77]

Palaeozoic era (540–250 Ma)

During the

As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In Eastern Antarctica,

Africa separated from Antarctica in the Jurassic, around 160 Ma, followed by the Indian subcontinent in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Ma). By the end of the Cretaceous, about 66 Ma, Antarctica (then connected to Australia) still had a subtropical climate and flora, complete with a marsupial fauna.^[94] In the Eocene epoch, about 40 Ma Australia-New Guinea separated from Antarctica, so that latitudinal currents could isolate Antarctica from Australia, and the first ice began to appear. During the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event about 34 million years ago, CO₂ levels have been found to be about 760 ppm,^[95] and had been decreasing from earlier levels in the thousands of ppm.^[96]

Around 25 Ma, the Drake Passage opened between Antarctica and South America, resulting in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current that completely isolated the continent. Models of the changes suggest that declining CO₂ levels became more important.^[97] The ice began to spread, replacing the forests that until then had covered the continent. Since about 15 Ma, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.^[98]

Pliocene and Pleistocene

Fossil Nothofagus leaves in the Meyer Desert Formation of the Sirius Group show that intermittent warm periods allowed Nothofagus shrubs to cling to the Dominion Range as late as 3–4 Ma (mid-late Pliocene).^[99] After that, the Pleistocene ice age covered the whole continent and destroyed all major plant life on it.^[100]

A study from 2014 estimated that during the Pleistocene, the East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) thinned by at least 500 m (1,600 ft), and that thinning since the Last Glacial Maximum for the EAIS area is less than 50 m (160 ft) and probably started after c. 14 ka.^[101]

About 2,200 years ago, a volcano erupted under Antarctica's ice sheet, as detected by an airborne survey with radar images. The biggest eruption in Antarctica in the last 10,000 years, the volcanic ash was found deposited on the ice surface under the Hudson Mountains, close to Pine Island Glacier.^[102]

Present-day

The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by nearly all of the continent being permanently covered with a thick layer of ice.^[103] However, new techniques such as remote sensing, ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice. Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the Andes mountain range of South America.^[81] The Antarctic Peninsula was formed by uplift and metamorphism of sea bed sediments.^[104]

The most common rocks in West Antarctica are andesite and rhyolite volcanics formed during the Jurassic period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in Marie Byrd Land and Alexander Island. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the Ellsworth Mountains region, where the stratigraphy is more similar to East Antarctica.^[105]

East Antarctica is geologically varied, dating from the

Antarctica is the coldest of Earth's continents. It was ice-free until about 34 million years ago, when it became covered with ice.^[110] The lowest natural air temperature ever recorded on Earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at the Russian Vostok Station in Antarctica on 21 July 1983.^[111] A lower air temperature of −94.7 °C (−138.5 °F) was recorded in 2010 by satellite—however, it may have been influenced by ground temperatures and was not recorded at a height of 2 metres (7 ft) above the surface as required for official air temperature records.^[112] Temperatures reach a minimum of between −80 °C (−112 °F) and −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) in the interior in winter and reach a maximum of between 5 °C (41 °F) and 15 °C (59 °F) near the coast in summer. Northern Antarctica recorded a temperature of 19.8 °C (67.6 °F) on January 1982, the highest temperature ever recorded on the continent.^[113]

Antarctica is a frozen desert with little precipitation; the South Pole receives less than 10 mm (0.4 in) per year, on average. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects almost all of the ultraviolet light falling on it. Given the latitude, long periods of constant darkness or constant sunlight create climates unfamiliar to human beings in much of the rest of the world.^[114]

The

Warming trend from 1957 to 2006

Some of Antarctica has been warming up; particularly strong warming has been noted on the Antarctic Peninsula. A study by Eric Steig published in 2009 noted for the first time that the continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica was slightly positive from 1957 to 2006.^[116] Over the second half of the 20th century, the Antarctic Peninsula was the fastest-warming place on Earth, closely followed by West Antarctica, but these trends weakened in the early 21st-century.^[117] Conversely, the South Pole in East Antarctica barely warmed last century, but temperatures shall have three times the global average in the last three decades.^[118] In February 2020, the continent recorded its highest temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F), which was a degree higher than the previous record of 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in March 2015.^[119]

There is some evidence that surface

In 2002 the Antarctic Peninsula's Larsen-B ice shelf collapsed.^[123] Between 28 February and 8 March 2008, about 570 km² (220 sq mi) of ice from the Wilkins Ice Shelf on the southwest part of the peninsula collapsed, putting the remaining 15,000 km² (5,800 sq mi) of the ice shelf at risk. The ice was being held back by a "thread" of ice about 6 km (4 mi) wide,^[124][125] prior to its collapse on 5 April 2009.^[126][127]

Ice loss and global sea level

Due to its location at the South Pole, Antarctica receives relatively little solar radiation except along the southern summer. This means that it is a very cold continent where water is mostly in the form of ice. Precipitation is low (most of Antarctica is a desert) and almost always in the form of snow, which accumulates and forms the giant ice sheets which cover the continent.^[128] Parts of this ice sheet form moving glaciers known as ice streams, which flow towards the edges of the continent.^[129] Next to the continental shore are many ice shelves. These are floating extensions of outflowing glaciers from the continental ice mass. Offshore, temperatures are also low enough that ice is formed from seawater through most of the year.

Sea ice and ice shelves

Sea ice extent expands annually in the Antarctic winter, but most of this ice melts in the summer. This ice is formed from the ocean water and floats in the same water and thus does not contribute to a rise in sea level.^[130] The extent of sea ice around Antarctica, in terms of square kilometres of coverage, has seen no significant trend in the satellite era (1978–2018), with initial growth being reversed in the last years of the record. A possible explanation for the difference between the Antarctic and the Arctic, which has seen rapid sea ice loss, is that thermohaline circulation transports warmed water to deeper layers in the ocean. The amount of variation it has experienced in its thickness is unclear with satellite techniques just emerging as of 2019.^[131]

Melting of floating ice shelves (ice that originated on the land) does not in itself contribute much to sea-level rise, since the ice displaces only its own mass of water. However, ice sheets work as a stabilizer of the land ice, and are vulnerable to warming water. Recent decades have witnessed several dramatic collapses of large ice shelves around the coast of Antarctica, especially along the Antarctic Peninsula.^[132] This loss of ice shelf ''buttressing'' has been identified as the major cause of ice loss on the West Antarctic ice sheet, but has also been observed around the East Antarctic ice sheet.^[133]

Ice sheet loss and sea level rise

The Antarctic ice sheet is losing mass as ice flows faster into the ocean than before. This effect is partially offset by additional snow falling back onto the continent.^[135] A 2018 systematic review study estimated that ice loss across the entire continent was 43 gigatonnes per year on average during the period from 1992 to 2002 but accelerated to an average of 220 gigatonnes per year during the five years from 2012 to 2017.^[136] The total contribution to sea level rise has been estimated as 8 mm to 14 mm of sea level rise.^[135][137]

On the continent itself, the large volume of ice present stores around 70% of the world's fresh water.^[61] East Antarctica is a cold region with a ground base above sea level and occupies most of the continent. This area is dominated by small accumulations of snowfall which becomes ice and thus eventually seaward glacial flows. Estimates of the mass balance of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet as a whole range from slightly positive to slightly negative.^[138][137] Increased ice outflow has been observed in some regions.^[137]

Future projections of ice loss depend on the speed of climate change mitigation and are uncertain. Tipping points have been identified in some regions; when a certain threshold warming is reached, these regions may start melting significantly faster and irreversibly. That is, even when temperatures come down again, the ice will not immediately regrow.^{[139] [140]}

Ozone depletion

Ozone depletion may have a dominant role in governing climatic change in Antarctica (and a wider area of the Southern Hemisphere).[142] Ozone absorbs large amounts of ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere. Ozone depletion over Antarctica can cause a cooling of around 6 °C in the local stratosphere. This cooling has the effect of intensifying the westerly winds which flow around the continent (the polar vortex) and thus prevents outflow of the cold air near the South Pole. As a result, the continental mass of the East Antarctic ice sheet is held at lower temperatures, and the peripheral areas of Antarctica, especially the Antarctic Peninsula, are subject to higher temperatures, which promote accelerated melting.^[142] Models suggest that ozone depletion and the enhanced polar vortex effect also account for the period of increased sea ice just offshore of the continent.^[146][147]

Biodiversity

The terrestrial and native year-round species appear to be the descendants of ancestors who lived in geothermally warmed environments during the last ice age when these areas were the only places on the continent not covered by ice.[148]

Animals

Invertebrate life of Antarctica includes

About 1,150 species of fungi have been recorded from Antarctica, of which about 750 are non-lichen-forming and 400 are lichen-forming.

About 300 million years ago Permian forests started to cover the continent, and tundra vegetation survived as late as 15 million years ago,^[165] but the climate of present-day Antarctica does not allow extensive vegetation to form. A combination of freezing temperatures, poor soil quality, lack of moisture, and lack of sunlight inhibit plant growth. As a result, the diversity of plant life is very low and limited in distribution. The flora of the continent largely consists of bryophytes. There are about 100 species of mosses and 25 species of liverworts, but only three species of flowering plants, all of which are found in the Antarctic Peninsula: Deschampsia antarctica (Antarctic hair grass), Colobanthus quitensis (Antarctic pearlwort) and the non-native Poa annua (annual bluegrass).^[166] Growth is restricted to a few weeks in the summer.^[160][167]

Other organisms

Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are phytoplankton. Multicoloured snow algae and diatoms are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.^[167] Bacteria have been found living in the cold and dark as deep as 800 m (0.50 mi; 2,600 ft) under the ice.^[168]

Conservation

The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (also known as the Environmental Protocol or Madrid Protocol) came into force in 1998, and is the main instrument concerned with conservation and management of biodiversity in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting is advised on environmental and conservation issues in Antarctica by the Committee for Environmental Protection. A major concern within this committee is the risk to Antarctica from unintentional introduction of non-native species from outside the region.^[169]

The passing of the Antarctic Conservation Act (1978) in the U.S. brought several restrictions to U.S. activity on Antarctica. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty that came into force in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.^[1] Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (marketed as Chilean Sea Bass in the U.S.), remains a serious problem. The illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing, with estimates of 32,000 tonnes (35,000 short tons) in 2000.^{[170][171][needs update]}

Population

Several governments maintain permanent, staffed research stations on the continent. The number of people conducting and supporting scientific research and other work on the continent and its nearby islands varies from about 1,000 in winter to about 5,000 in the summer, giving it a population density between 70 and 350 inhabitants per million square kilometres (180 and 900 per million square miles) at these times. Many of the stations are staffed year-round, the winter-over personnel typically arriving from their home countries for a one-year assignment. An Orthodox church—Trinity Church, opened in 2004 at the Russian Bellingshausen Station—is manned year-round by one or two priests, who are similarly rotated every year.^[172][173]

The first semi-permanent inhabitants of regions near Antarctica (areas situated south of the Antarctic Convergence) were British and American sealers who used to spend a year or more on South Georgia, from 1786 onward. During the whaling era, which lasted until 1966, the population of that island varied from over 1,000 in the summer (over 2,000 in some years) to some 200 in the winter. Most of the whalers were Norwegian, with an increasing proportion of Britons. The settlements included Grytviken, Leith Harbour, King Edward Point, Stromness, Husvik, Prince Olav Harbour, Ocean Harbour and Godthul. Managers and other senior officers of the whaling stations often lived together with their families. Among them was the founder of Grytviken, Captain Carl Anton Larsen, a prominent Norwegian whaler and explorer who, along with his family, adopted British citizenship in 1910.^[174]

South Georgia. She was a daughter of Fridthjof Jacobsen, the assistant manager of the whaling station, and Klara Olette Jacobsen. Jacobsen arrived on the island in 1904 and became the manager of Grytviken, serving from 1914 to 1921; two of his children were born on the island.^[175]

Emilio Marcos Palma was the first person born south of the 60th parallel south, the first born on the Antarctic mainland, and the only living human to be the first born on any continent.^[176] He was born in 1978 at Esperanza Base, on the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula;^[177][178] his parents were sent there along with seven other families by the Argentine government to determine if the continent was suitable for family life. In 1984, Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Frei Montalva Station, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.^[179] As of 2009, eleven children were born in Antarctica (south of the 60th parallel south): eight at the Argentine Esperanza Base^[180] and three at the Chilean Frei Montalva Station.^[181]

Politics

Several countries claim sovereignty in certain regions. While a few of these countries have mutually recognised each other's claims,^[182] the validity of these claims is not recognised universally.^[1]

New claims on Antarctica have been suspended since 1959, although in 2015 Norway formally defined Queen Maud Land as including the unclaimed area between it and the South Pole.

Antarctic Treaty and other related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System. Antarctica is defined as all land and ice shelves south of 60° S for the purposes of the Treaty System. The treaty was signed by twelve countries including the Soviet Union (and later Russia), the United Kingdom, Argentina, Chile, Australia, and the United States.^[184]

It set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and environmental protection.

Military activities banned

The Antarctic Treaty bans military activity on Antarctica. This was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War.

The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any

Argentine military in 1965.^[186]

Environmental protection

A coalition of international environmental protection organisations

Greenpeace International,^[188] launched a public campaign to pressure governments to prevent any minerals development in the region. Greenpeace International operated its own scientific station—World Park Base—in the Ross Sea region from 1987 until 1991^[189] and conducted annual expeditions to document environmental effects of humans on Antarctica.^[190]

In 1983 the Antarctic Treaty Parties began negotiations on a convention to regulate

Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources (CRAMRA) was adopted.^[192] The following year, however, Australia and France announced that they would not ratify the convention, rendering it dead for all intents and purposes. They proposed instead that a comprehensive regime to protect the Antarctic environment be negotiated in its place.^[193] The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the "Madrid Protocol") was negotiated as other countries followed suit and on 14 January 1998 it entered into force.^[193][194] The Madrid Protocol bans all mining in Antarctica, designating the continent as a "natural reserve devoted to peace and science".^[195]

Antarctic territories

Main article: Territorial claims in Antarctica

Date	Claimant	Territory	Claim limits	Map
1840	France	Adélie Land	142°02′E to 136°11′E
1908	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Territory	080°00′W to 020°00′W including overlaps: 80°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by Chile (1940) 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by Chile (1940) and Argentina (1943) 53°00′W to 25°00′W claimed by Argentina (1943)
1923	New Zealand	Ross Dependency	160°00′E to 150°00′W
1931	Norway	Peter I Island	68°50′S 90°35′W / 68.833°S 90.583°W / -68.833; -90.583 (Peter I Island)
1933	Australia	Australian Antarctic Territory	044°38′E to 136°11′E, and 142°02′E to 160°00′E
1939	Norway	Queen Maud Land	020°00′W to 044°38′E
1940	Chile	Chilean Antarctic Territory	090°00′W to 053°00′W including overlaps: 90°00′W to 74°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Argentina (1943)
1943	Argentina	Argentine Antarctica	074°00′W to 025°00′W including overlaps: 74°00′W to 53°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908) and Chile (1940) 53°00′W to 25°00′W claimed by the United Kingdom (1908)
–	(Unclaimed territory)	Marie Byrd Land	150°00′W to 090°00′W (except Peter I Island)

The Argentine, British and Chilean claims all overlap, and have caused friction. On 18 December 2012, the British

Diamond Jubilee.^[196] On 22 December 2012, the UK ambassador to Argentina, John Freeman, was summoned to the Argentine government as a protest against the claim.^[197] Argentine–UK relations had previously been damaged throughout 2012 due to disputes over the sovereignty of the nearby Falkland Islands, and the 30th anniversary of the Falklands War.^[198]

The areas shown as Australia's and New Zealand's claims were British territory until they were handed over following the countries' independence. Australia currently claims the largest area. The claims of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France and Norway are all recognised by each other.[199]

Other countries participating as members of the Antarctic Treaty have a territorial interest in Antarctica, but the provisions of the Treaty do not allow them to make their claims while it is in force.^[200][201]

•  Brazil has a designated "zone of interest" that is not an actual claim.^[202]
•  Peru has formally reserved its right to make a claim.^[200][201]
•  Russia has inherited the Soviet Union's right to claim territory under the original Antarctic Treaty.^[203]
•  South Africa has formally reserved its right to make a claim.^[200][201]
•  United States reserved its right to make a claim in the original Antarctic Treaty.^[203]

Economy

See also: Tourism in Antarctica

patrol ship

There is no current economic activity in Antarctica outside of fishing off the coast and small-scale tourism.^[1]

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they have not been in large enough quantities to exploit.^[204] The 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty also restricts a struggle for resources. In 1998, a compromise agreement was reached to place an indefinite ban on mining, to be reviewed in 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary economic activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000–01 reported landing 112,934 tonnes.^[205]

Small-scale "expedition tourism" has existed since 1957 and is currently subject to Antarctic Treaty and Environmental Protocol provisions, but in effect self-regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO). Not all vessels associated with Antarctic tourism are members of IAATO, but IAATO members account for 95% of the tourist activity. Travel is largely by small or medium ship, focusing on specific scenic locations with accessible concentrations of iconic wildlife. A total of 37,506 tourists visited during the 2006–07 Austral summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships; 38,478 were recorded in 2015–16.^{[206][207][208]} As of 2018, there are two Wells Fargo ATMs in Antarctica, both located at McMurdo Station.^[209]

There has been some concern over the potential adverse environmental and ecosystem effects caused by the influx of visitors. Some environmentalists and scientists have made a call for stricter regulations for ships and a tourism quota.

Air New Zealand Flight 901 in the Mount Erebus disaster in 1979, which killed all 257 people aboard.^[211] Qantas resumed commercial overflights to Antarctica from Australia in the mid-1990s.^[212]

About thirty countries maintain about seventy research stations (40-year-round or permanent, and 30 summer-only) in Antarctica, with an approximate population of 4000 in summer and 1000 in winter.^[1]

The

country calling codes and currencies^[213] are used for different settlements, depending on the administrating country. The Antarctican dollar, a souvenir item sold in the United States and Canada, is not legal tender.^[1][214]

Research

See also: Research stations in Antarctica

Each year, scientists from 28 nations conduct experiments not reproducible in any other place in the world. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate research stations; this number decreases to just over 1,000 in the winter.^[1] McMurdo Station, which is the largest research station in Antarctica, is capable of housing more than 1,000 scientists, visitors, and tourists.^[215]

Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. Geologists tend to study plate tectonics, meteorites from outer space, and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. Glaciologists in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and ice sheets. Biologists, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms.^[216] Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.^[217]

Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the

Halley Station on the Brunt Ice Shelf discovered the existence of a hole in this layer. It was eventually determined that the destruction of the ozone was caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) emitted by human products.^[218] With the ban of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol of 1989, climate projections indicate that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070.^[219]

In 2007,

polar regions. The project includes research in climatology, glaciology and microbiology.^[221]

Astrophysics

cosmic microwave background radiation. Many astronomical observations are better made from the interior of Antarctica than from most surface locations because of the high elevation, which results in a thin atmosphere; low temperature, which minimises the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere; and absence of light pollution, thus allowing for a view of space clearer than anywhere else on Earth. Antarctic ice serves as both the shield and the detection medium for the largest neutrino telescope in the world, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory built 2 km (1.2 mi) below Amundsen–Scott station.^[222]

solar system; most are thought to come from asteroids, but some may have originated on larger planets. The first meteorite was found in 1912 and named the Adelie Land meteorite. In 1969, a Japanese expedition discovered nine meteorites. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the ice sheet in the last million years. The motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall. Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are well-preserved.^[223]

ALH84001, from Mars

This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these are pieces blasted off the Moon and Mars by impacts. These specimens, particularly

ALH84001 discovered by ANSMET, were at the centre of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.^[223]

Notes

1. ^ The word was originally pronounced with the first c silent in English, but the spelling pronunciation has become common and is often considered more correct. The pronunciation with a silent c, and even with the first t silent as well, is however widespread and typical of many similar English words.^[2] The c had ceased to be pronounced in Medieval Latin and was dropped from the spelling in Old French, but it was added back for etymological reasons in English in the 17th century and thereafter began to be pronounced, but (as with other spelling pronunciations) at first only by less educated people.^[3][4] For those who pronounce the first t, there is also variation between the pronunciations Ant-ar(c)tica and An-tar(c)tica.

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Bibliography

• Erceg, Diane (October 2017). "Explorers of a Different Kind: A History of Antarctic Tourism 1966–2016" (PDF). Australian National University.
• J. Stewart. Antarctica: An Encyclopedia. Jefferson, N.C. and London: McFarland, 2011. 1771 pp.
  ISBN 978-0-7864-3590-6
• B. Riffenburgh, ed. Encyclopedia of the Antarctic. New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2006. 1272 pp.
  ISBN 978-1-1358-7866-5

External links

• High resolution map (2018) – Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica (
  REMA
  )
• Antarctica. on In Our Time at the BBC
• Antarctica. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, de facto government
• British Antarctic Survey (BAS)
• U.S. Antarctic Program Portal

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