John Locke

John Locke
MB, 1675)
Era	Age of Enlightenment
Region	Western philosophy
School	Empiricism Foundationalism[1] Conceptualism[2] Indirect realism[3] Correspondence theory of truth[4] Ideational theory of meaning[5] Corpuscularianism[6] Social contract Natural law Classical liberalism
Institutions	University of Oxford[7] Royal Society
Main interests	Metaphysics, epistemology, political philosophy, philosophy of mind, philosophy of education, economics
Notable ideas	List Consciousness Consent of the governed Inverted spectrum Labor theory of property Law of opinion Lockean proviso Molyneux's problem Argument from ignorance[8][9] Natural rights (rights of life, liberty and property)[10] Primary/secondary quality distinction Semeiotike (the doctrine of signs) Social contract Sortal State of nature Tabula rasa
Signature

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John Locke
Social contract Limited government Tabula rasa State of nature Right to property Labor theory of property Lockean proviso Argument from consciousness
Works (listed chronologically)
Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina A Letter Concerning Toleration Two Treatises of Government An Essay Concerning Human Understanding Some Thoughts Concerning Education Of the Conduct of the Understanding
People
Robert Filmer Thomas Hobbes 1st Earl of Shaftesbury David Hume Jean-Jacques Rousseau Adam Smith Immanuel Kant Thomas Jefferson
Related topics
Empiricism Classical liberalism Polish Brethren
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John Locke (

Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about 12 miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day, as both of his parents were Puritans. Locke's father, also named John, was an attorney who served as clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna^[17] and as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His mother was Agnes Keene. Soon after Locke's birth, the family moved to the market town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol, where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.

In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander Popham, a member of Parliament and John Sr.'s former commander. At the age of 16 he was at school just half a mile away from the execution of Charles I; however, the boys were not allowed to go and watch. After completing studies at Westminster, he was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford, in the autumn of 1652 at the age of 20. The dean of the college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of the university. Although a capable student, Locke was irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time. He found the works of modern philosophers, such as René Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School, Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.^{[citation needed]}

Locke was awarded a

Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667, moved into Ashley's home at Exeter House in London, to serve as his personal physician. In London, Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major effect on Locke's natural philosophical thinking—an effect that would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Locke's medical knowledge was put to the test when Ashley's liver infection became life-threatening. Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and was probably instrumental in persuading Ashley to undergo surgery (then life-threatening in itself) to remove the cyst. Ashley survived and prospered, crediting Locke with saving his life.

During this time, Locke served as Secretary of the

He died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of All Saints' Church in High Laver, near Harlow in Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Francis Masham since 1691.^[23] Locke never married nor had children.

Events that happened during Locke's lifetime include the

Locke has an engraved floor memorial plaque at Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford.^[24]

Philosophy

In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Locke's Two Treatises were rarely cited. Historian Julian Hoppit said of the book "except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and was generally ignored until 1703 (though in Oxford in 1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise')."^[25] John Kenyon, in his study of British political debate from 1689 to 1720, has remarked that Locke's theories were "mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the [Glorious] Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it was to heap abuse on them" and that "no one, including most Whigs, [was] ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke".^[26]: 200 In contrast, Kenyon adds that Algernon Sidney's Discourses Concerning Government were "certainly much more influential than Locke's Two Treatises."^{[i][26]: 51}

In the 50 years after Queen Anne's death in 1714, the Two Treatises were reprinted only once (except in the collected works of Locke). However, with the rise of American resistance to British taxation, the Second Treatise of Government gained a new readership; it was frequently cited in the debates in both America and Britain. The first American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston.^[27]

Locke exercised a profound influence on

Locke thought the state's borders and the functioning and enforcement of the existence of the state and its constitution were metaphysically tied to "the natural rights of the individual", and this inspired future liberal politicians and philosophers.^[34]

Religious tolerance

Writing his Letters Concerning Toleration (1689–1692) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, Locke formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance, in which three arguments are central:^[35]

1. earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints;
2. even if they could, enforcing a single 'true religion' would not have the desired effect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence;
3. coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than allowing diversity.

With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke was influenced by

But historian Holly Brewer has argued that Locke's role in the Constitution of Carolina has been exaggerated and that he was merely paid to revise and make copies of a document that had already been partially written before he became involved; she compares Locke's role to a lawyer writing a will.^[46] She state that Locke was paid in Royal African Company stock in lieu of money for his work as a secretary for a governmental sub-committee, and that he sold the stock after a few years.^[47] Brewer likewise argues that Locke actively worked to undermine slavery in Virginia while heading a Board of Trade created by William of Orange following the Glorious Revolution. He specifically attacked colonial policy granting land to slave owners and encouraged the baptism and Christian education of the children of enslaved Africans to undercut a major justification of slavery—that they were heathens who possessed no rights.^[48] In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke provided a justification for slavery that could never be met, thus rendering invalid all forms of slavery that existed. Moreover, because slavery is invalid, there is a moral injunction to try to throw off and escape from it.

Locke also supported child labour, which was an intrinsic part of all pre-industrial societies.^[49][50] In his "Essay on the Poor Law", he discusses the education of the poor; he laments that "the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish, and are usually maintained in idleness, so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old".^[51]: 190 Therefore, he suggests the setting up of "working schools" for poor children in each parish in England so that they will be "from infancy [three years old] inured to work".^[51]: 190 He goes on to outline the economics of these schools, arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish, but also that they will instil a good work ethic in the children.^[51]: 191

Government

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Locke's political theory was founded upon that of social contract. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance. Like Hobbes, however, Locke believed that human nature allows people to be selfish. This is apparent with the introduction of currency. In a natural state, all people were equal and independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend his "life, health, liberty, or possessions".^[52]: 198 Most scholars trace the phrase "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness" in the American Declaration of Independence to Locke's theory of rights,^[53] although other origins have been suggested.^[54]

Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conflicts in a civil way with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.^[55] Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come to have profound influence on the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Accumulation of wealth

According to Locke, unused property is wasteful and an offence against nature,

Ideas

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History Roman Republic Gaṇasaṅgha Classical Athens Republic of Venice Republic of Genoa Republic of Florence Dutch Republic American Revolution French Revolution Spanish American wars of independence Trienio Liberal French Revolution of 1848 5 October 1910 revolution Chinese Revolution Russian Revolution German Revolution of 1918–1919 Turkish War of Independence Mongolian Revolution of 1921 11 September 1922 Revolution 1935 Greek coup d'état attempt Spanish Civil War 1946 Italian institutional referendum 1952 Egyptian revolution 14 July Revolution North Yemen Civil War Zanzibar Revolution 1969 Libyan coup d'état 1970 Cambodian coup d'état Metapolitefsi Iranian Revolution 1987 Fijian coups d'état Nepalese Civil War Barbadian Republic Proclamation
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Economics

On price theory

Locke's general theory of value and price is a supply-and-demand theory, set out in a letter to a member of parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money.^[60] In it, he refers to supply as quantity and demand as rent: "The price of any commodity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of buyers and sellers" and "that which regulates the price…[of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent."

The quantity theory of money forms a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on "money answers all things" (Ecclesiastes) or "rent of money is always sufficient, or more than enough" and "varies very little". Locke concludes that, as far as money is concerned, the demand for it is exclusively regulated by its quantity, regardless of whether the demand is unlimited or constant. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, he explains the value of goods as based on their scarcity and ability to be exchanged and consumed. He explains demand for goods as based on their ability to yield a flow of income. Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as of land, which has value because "by its constant production of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income". He considers the demand for money as almost the same as demand for goods or land: it depends on whether money is wanted as medium of exchange. As a medium of exchange, he states, "money is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or conveniences of life" and, for loanable funds, "it comes to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain yearly income…or interest".

Monetary thoughts

Locke distinguishes two functions of money: as a counter to

Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and suffer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. He considers the latter less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country's money stock, if it is large relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the country's exchange to rise above par, as an export balance would do.

He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for different economic groups (landholders, labourers, and brokers). In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues the brokers—the middlemen—whose activities enlarge the monetary circuit and whose profits eat into the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative influence on both personal and the public economy to which they supposedly contribute.^[61]

Theory of value and property

Locke uses the concept of property in both broad and narrow terms: broadly, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more particularly, it refers to material goods. He argues that property is a natural right that is derived from labour. In Chapter V of his Second Treatise, Locke argues that the individual ownership of goods and property is justified by the labour exerted to produce such goods—"at least where there is enough [land], and as good, left in common for others" (para. 27)—or to use property to produce goods beneficial to human society.^[62]

Locke states in his Second Treatise that nature on its own provides little of value to society, implying that the labour expended in the creation of goods gives them their value. From this premise, understood as a labour theory of value,^[62] Locke developed a labour theory of property, whereby ownership of property is created by the application of labour. In addition, he believed that property precedes government and government cannot "dispose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily". Karl Marx later critiqued Locke's theory of property in his own social theory.^[63]

The human mind

The self

Locke defines the self as "that conscious thinking thing, (whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or material, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends".^[64] He does not, however, wholly ignore "substance", writing that "the body too goes to the making the man".^[65]

In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this conscious mind. Arguing against both the

This source of ideas every man has wholly within himself; and though it be not sense, as having nothing to do with external objects, yet it is very like it, and might properly enough be called 'internal sense.'[67]

Locke's

This theory came to be called

educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their children to develop negative associations. It also led to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on Man

(1749).

Dream argument

Locke was critical of Descartes's version of the dream argument, with Locke making the counter-argument that people cannot have physical pain in dreams as they do in waking life.^[71]

Religion

Religious beliefs

Some scholars have seen Locke's political convictions as being based from his religious beliefs.

trinitarianism, but by the time of the Reflections (1695) Locke was advocating not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian Christology.^[75] However Wainwright (1987) notes that in the posthumously published Paraphrase (1707) Locke's interpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly different from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may indicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer to an Arian position, thereby accepting Christ's pre-existence.^[76][75]

Locke was at times not sure about the subject of original sin, so he was accused of Socinianism, Arianism, or Deism.^[77] Locke argued that the idea that "all Adam's Posterity [are] doomed to Eternal Infinite Punishment, for the Transgression of Adam" was "little consistent with the Justice or Goodness of the Great and Infinite God", leading Eric Nelson to associate him with Pelagian ideas.^[78] However, he did not deny the reality of evil. Man was capable of waging unjust wars and committing crimes. Criminals had to be punished, even with the death penalty.^[79]

With regard to the Bible, Locke was very conservative. He retained the doctrine of the

verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.^[36] The miracles were proof of the divine nature of the biblical message. Locke was convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in agreement with human reason (The Reasonableness of Christianity, 1695).^[80][36] Although Locke was an advocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism, because he thought the denial of God's existence would undermine the social order and lead to chaos.^[81] That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law from purely secular premises.^[82] In Locke's opinion the cosmological argument was valid and proved God's existence. His political thought was based on Protestant Christian views.^[82][83] Additionally, Locke advocated a sense of piety out of gratitude to God for giving reason to men.^[84]

Philosophy from religion

Locke's concept of man started with the belief in creation.

Samuel Pufendorf, Locke equated natural law with the biblical revelation.^[86][87][88] Locke derived the fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from Genesis 1 and 2 (creation), the Decalogue, the Golden Rule, the teachings of Jesus, and the letters of Paul the Apostle.^[89] The Decalogue

puts a person's life, reputation and property under God's protection.

Locke's philosophy on freedom is also derived from the Bible. Locke derived from the Bible basic human equality (including

Imago Dei.^[90] To Locke, one of the consequences of the principle of equality was that all humans were created equally free and therefore governments needed the consent of the governed.^[91] Locke compared the English monarchy's rule over the British people to Adam's rule over Eve in Genesis, which was appointed by God.^[92]

Following Locke's philosophy, the American Declaration of Independence founded human rights partially on the biblical belief in creation. Locke's doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central to the Declaration of Independence.^[93]

Library

Manuscripts, books and treatises

Locke was an assiduous book collector and notetaker throughout his life. By his death in 1704, Locke had amassed a library of more than 3,000 books, a significant number in the seventeenth century.^[94] Unlike some of his contemporaries, Locke took care to catalogue and preserve his library, and his will made specific provisions for how his library was to be distributed after his death. Locke's will offered Lady Masham the choice of "any four folios, eight quartos and twenty books of less volume, which she shall choose out of the books in my Library."^[95] Locke also gave six titles to his "good friend" Anthony Collins, but Locke bequeathed the majority of his collection to his cousin Peter King (later Lord King) and to Lady Masham's son, Francis Cudworth Masham.^[95]

Francis Masham was promised one "moiety" (half) of Locke's library when he reached "the age of one and twenty years."^[95] The other "moiety" of Locke's books, along with his manuscripts, passed to his cousin King.^[95] Over the next two centuries, the Masham portion of Locke's library was dispersed.^[96] The manuscripts and books left to King, however, remained with King's descendants (later the Earls of Lovelace), until most of the collection was bought by the Bodleian Library, Oxford in 1947.^[97] Another portion of the books Locke left to King was discovered by the collector and philanthropist Paul Mellon in 1951.^[97] Mellon supplemented this discovery with books from Locke's library which he bought privately, and in 1978, he transferred his collection to the Bodleian.^[97] The holdings in the Locke Room at the Bodleian have been a valuable resource for scholars interested in Locke, his philosophy, practices for information management, and the history of the book.

Many of the books still contain Locke's signature, which he often made on the

pastedowns of his books. Many also include Locke's marginalia

.

The printed books in Locke's library reflected his various intellectual interests as well as his movements at different stages of his life. Locke travelled extensively in France and the Netherlands during the 1670s and 1680s, and during this time he acquired many books from the continent. Only half of the books in Locke's library were printed in England, while close to 40% came from France and the Netherlands.^[98] These books cover a wide range of subjects. According to John Harrison and Peter Laslett, the largest genres in Locke's library were theology (23.8% of books), medicine (11.1%), politics and law (10.7%), and classical literature (10.1%).^[99] The Bodleian library currently holds more than 800 of the books from Locke's library.^[97] These include Locke's copies of works by several of the most influential figures of the seventeenth century, including

• The Quaker William Penn: An address to Protestants of all perswasions (Bodleian Locke 7.69a)
• The explorer Francis Drake: The world encompassed by Sir Francis Drake (Bodleian Locke 8.37c)
• The scientist Robert Boyle: A discourse of things above reason (Bodleian Locke 7.272)
• The bishop and historian Thomas Sprat: The history of the Royal-Society of London (Bodleian Locke 9.10a)

In addition to books owned by Locke, the Bodleian also possesses more than 100 manuscripts related to Locke or written in his hand. Like the books in Locke's library, these manuscripts display a range of interests and provide different windows into Locke's activity and relationships. Several of the manuscripts include letters to and from acquaintances like Peter King (MS Locke b. 6) and Nicolas Toinard (MS Locke c. 45).^[100] MS Locke f. 1–10 contain Locke's journals for most years between 1675 and 1704.^[100] Some of the most significant manuscripts include early drafts of Locke's writings, such as his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (MS Locke f. 26).^[100] The Bodleian also holds a copy of Robert Boyle's General History of the Air with corrections and notes Locke made while preparing Boyle's work for posthumous publication (MS Locke c. 37 ).^[101] Other manuscripts contain unpublished works. Among others, MS. Locke e. 18 includes some of Locke's thoughts on the Glorious Revolution, which Locke sent to his friend Edward Clarke but never published.^[102]

One of the largest categories of manuscript at the Bodleian comprises Locke's notebooks and commonplace books. The scholar Richard Yeo calls Locke a "Master Note-taker" and explains that "Locke's methodical note-taking pervaded most areas of his life."^[103] In an unpublished essay "Of Study," Locke argued that a notebook should work like a "chest-of-drawers" for organizing information, which would be a "great help to the memory and means to avoid confusion in our thoughts."^[104] Locke kept several notebooks and commonplace books, which he organized according to topic. MS Locke c. 43 includes Locke's notes on theology, while MS Locke f. 18–24 contain medical notes.^[100] Other notebooks, such as MS c. 43, incorporate several topics in the same notebook, but separated into sections.^[100]

These commonplace books were highly personal and were designed to be used by Locke himself rather than accessible to a wide audience.^[105] Locke's notes are often abbreviated and are full of codes which he used to reference material across notebooks.^[106] Another way Locke personalized his notebooks was by devising his own method of creating indexes using a grid system and Latin keywords.^[107] Instead of recording entire words, his indexes shortened words to their first letter and vowel. Thus, the word "Epistle" would be classified as "Ei".^[108] Locke published his method in French in 1686, and it was republished posthumously in English in 1706.

Some of the books in Locke's library at the Bodleian are a combination of manuscript and print. Locke had some of his books interleaved, meaning that they were bound with blank sheets in-between the printed pages to enable annotations. Locke interleaved and annotated his five volumes of the New Testament in French, Greek, and Latin (Bodleian Locke 9.103-107). Locke did the same with his copy of Thomas Hyde's Bodleian Library catalogue (Bodleian Locke 16.17), which Locke used to create a catalogue of his own library.^[109]

Writing

List of major works

• 1689. A Letter Concerning Toleration.
  • 1690. A Second Letter Concerning Toleration
  • 1692. A Third Letter for Toleration
• 1689/90. Two Treatises of Government (published throughout the 18th century by London bookseller Andrew Millar by commission for Thomas Hollis)^[110]
• 1689/90. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
• 1691. Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value of Money
• 1693. Some Thoughts Concerning Education
• 1695. The Reasonableness of Christianity, as Delivered in the Scriptures
  • 1695. A Vindication of the Reasonableness of Christianity

Major posthumous manuscripts

• 1660. First Tract of Government (or the English Tract)
• c.1662. Second Tract of Government (or the Latin Tract)
• 1664. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature.^[111]
• 1667. Essay Concerning Toleration
• 1706. Of the Conduct of the Understanding
• 1707. A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Ephesians

See also

• List of liberal theorists

References

Notes

1. ^ Kenyon (1977) adds: "Any unbiassed study of the position shows in fact that it was Filmer, not Hobbes, Locke or Sidney, who was the most influential thinker of the age" (p. 63).

Citations

1. ^ Fumerton, Richard (2000). "Foundationalist Theories of Epistemic Justification". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 24 April 2018. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
2. ^ David Bostock (2009). Philosophy of Mathematics: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 43. All of Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume supposed that mathematics is a theory of our ideas, but none of them offered any argument for this conceptualist claim, and apparently took it to be uncontroversial.
3. ^ John W. Yolton (2000). Realism and Appearances: An Essay in Ontology. Cambridge University Press. p. 136.
4. ^ "The Correspondence Theory of Truth". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
5. ^ Grigoris Antoniou; John Slaney, eds. (1998). Advanced Topics in Artificial Intelligence. Springer. p. 9.
6. Vere Claiborne Chappell
   , ed. (1994). The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge University Press. p. 56.
7. ^ ^{a b} Uzgalis, William (1 May 2018) [September 2, 2001]. "John Locke". In E. N. Zalta (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
8. OCLC 30624864
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9. ^ Locke, John (1690). "Book IV, Chapter XVII: Of Reason". An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
10. ^ Locke, John (1690). Two Treatises of Government (10th ed.): Chapter II, Section 6. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 16 November 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
11. ^ Hirschmann, Nancy J. (2009). Gender, Class, and Freedom in Modern Political Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 79.
12. ^ Sharma, Urmila; S. K. Sharma (2006). Western Political Thought. Washington: Atlantic Publishers. p. 440.
13. ^ Korab-Karpowicz, W. Julian (2010). A History of Political Philosophy: From Thucydides to Locke. New York: Global Scholarly Publications. p. 291.
14. ^ Becker, Carl Lotus (1922). The Declaration of Independence: a Study in the History of Political Ideas. New York: Harcourt, Brace. p. 27.
15. ISBN 978-0906321690
16. ISBN 978-0-13-158591-1
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17. ISBN 978-0-415-22530-4
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18. ^ Roger Woolhouse (2007). Locke: A Biography. Cambridge University Press. p. 116.
19. ^ Uzgalis, William (2022), "John Locke", in Zalta, Edward N.; Nodelman, Uri (eds.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 7 March 2024
20. ISBN 978-0-436-19274-6
    , retrieved 28 August 2012
21. ^ Laslett 1988, III. Two Treatises of Government and the Revolution of 1688.
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Sources

• Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities.
• Ayers, Michael, 1991. Locke. Epistemology & Ontology Routledge (the standard work on Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding.)
• Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard Uni. Press. Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.
• Brewer, Holly (October 2017). "Slavery, Sovereignty, and "Inheritable Blood": Reconsidering John Locke and the Origins of American Slavery". American Historical Review. 122 (4): 1038–1078.
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• Cohen, Gerald
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• Cox, Richard, Locke on War and Peace, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations.
• Chappell, Vere, ed., 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge U.P. excerpt and text search Archived 29 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine
• Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. A succinct introduction.
• ———, 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of Government". Cambridge Uni. Press. Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the theological element in Locke's political thought.
• Heussi, Karl (1956), Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte (in German), Tübingen, DE{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Hudson, Nicholas, "John Locke and the Tradition of Nominalism," in: Nominalism and Literary Discourse, ed. Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283–299.
• Laslett, Peter (1988), Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press to Locke's Two Treatises of Government
• Locke, John (1996), Grant, Ruth W; Tarcov, Nathan (eds.), Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of the Understanding, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co, p. 10
• Locke, John (1997b), Woolhouse, Roger (ed.), An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, New York: Penguin Books
• Locke Studies, appearing annually from 2001, formerly The Locke Newsletter (1970–2000), publishes scholarly work on John Locke.
• Macpherson, C.B. The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism.
• ISBN 978-0-674-24094-0. Archived
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• Olmstead, Clifton E (1960), History of Religion in the United States, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
• Tully, James, 1980. A Discourse on Property : John Locke and his Adversaries. Cambridge Uni. Press
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• Yolton, John W., ed., 1993. A Locke Dictionary. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Zuckert, Michael, Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.

External links

Works

• Works by John Locke in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
• The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke
• Of the Conduct of the Understanding
• Works by John Locke at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about John Locke at Internet Archive
• Works by John Locke at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Work by John Locke at Online Books
• The Works of John Locke
  • 1823 Edition, 10 volumes on PDF files, and additional resources Archived 10 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine
• John Locke Manuscripts Archived 13 October 2009 at the Portuguese Web Archive
• Updated versions of Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Second Treatise of Government, Letter on Toleration and Conduct of the Understanding, edited (i.e. modernized and abridged) by Jonathan Bennett

Resources

• "John Locke". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• "John Locke: Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• "John Locke: Political Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Rickless, Samuel. "Locke on Freedom". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• John Locke Bibliography Archived 13 October 2009 at the Portuguese Web Archive
• Locke Studies An Annual Journal of Locke Research
• Hewett, Caspar, John Locke's Theory of Knowledge, UK: The great debate.
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• Huyler, Jerome, Was Locke a Liberal? (PDF), Independent, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2009, retrieved 2 August 2008, a complex and positive answer.
• Kraynak, Robert P. (March 1980). "John Locke: from absolutism to toleration".
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