User:Gavygav/Central America War

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Central America War
Part of the Cold War
Map of Central America
Date 17 July 1979 – 31 January 1992 [2] Location Central America Result Victory for Democracy* Soviet Communist expansionism* Cuban military presence defeated* Restoration and installation democratic governments
Belligerents
United States Central American states:  El Salvador  Honduras  Panama Guerilla rebel force: Contrarevolutionaries	Soviet Union  Cuba Central American states:  Nicaragua Military advisors :  PLOCite error: There are <ref> tags on this page without content in them (see the help page). East Germany Bulgaria Libya[1]
Commanders and leaders
Ronald Reagan William Crowe Paul Gorman	Daniel Ortega Fidel Castro
Strength
United States: 200,000 Honduras: 20,000	Nicaragua: ≈150,000 Cuba: 2,500[3]: 6, 26, 62  Soviet Union: 49 North Korea: 24[1] East Germany: 16 Bulgaria: 14 Libya: 3 or 4
Casualties and losses
United States: 311 killed[4] 1,500 wounded[3]: 6, 62  35 helicopters lost	Nicaragua: 3,200 killed 8,000 wounded Cuba: 25 killed 59 wounded 638 captured[3] Soviet Union: Large weapons cache seized: 12 armored personnel carriers 12 anti-aircraft guns 291 submachine guns 6,330 rifles 5.6 million rounds of ammunition[5]
Civilian casualties: 200,000+ killed

The Central America War encompasses all regional conflicts, civil wars, guerrilla activity, military operations, political unrest, terrorist activity, covert illegal arms and drug trafficking activity conducted in Central America from 1979 to 1992. The CENTRAL AMERICA WAR (C.A. War), orchestrated by the United States and Soviet Union Cold War antagonist superpowers occurred primarily on the isthmus of Central America involving the countries of Nicaragua, El Salvador, Honduras, Panama, Guatemala and the island nation of Cuba. This article introduces the historical significants of properly designating the C.A. War as one regional conflict encompassing the Salvadoran Civil War, the Nicaraguan Revolution, U.S. lead operations Urgent Fury and Just Cause, and all civil unrest, guerrilla warfare, disappearances, death squad activity, subversion and oppressive activity, felony criminal activity directly related to the war, terrorist activity and arms/drug trafficking during the war combined as the Central America War. Democracy versus Communism, the true Cold War ideological tug-of-war all involved the same underlying political socioeconomic structures and ideology-one overall war designation is appropriate. Some would argue the C.A. War of 1979-1992 was simply a continuation of the Nicaraguan Revolution beginning in 1960 and enhanced by the ouster of Anastasio Somoza in July 1979 by the Sandinista Revolutionary movement on a regional and international scale.

The USG employed numerous Task Forces and Emergency Readiness Deployment Exercises, but the mainstay of the Honduran based U.S. military operations was Joint Task Force-Bravo, which was officially enacted by the U.S. Pentagon on August 1, 1984, but was preceded by Joint Task Force-11 and Alpha respectively. The post Anastasio Samoza regional war was lead by the Sandinista Peoples Army on the communist side.

After the Sandinista National Liberation Front seized power, U.S. and Nicaragua relations began to wither. The leftist

seized power in a brutal civil war from 1978-1979 that was highly opposed by the Carter Administration. Once President Ronald Reagan was elected in 1980 and assumed the presidency in January 1981, he immediately initiated National Security Decision Directives authorizing covert and overt military and paramilitary operations against the Sandinista government. There are no clear exact beginning and end dates to this highly covert war.

U.S. military air and land based operations were augmented by U.S. Navy destroyer and air craft carrier fleets on an almost continues basis within the Gulf of Fonseca, the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean side of the isthmus.

The

until elections were held in 1984.

The covert and overt military operations disguised as training and war games were highly criticized by a number of prominent countries including the United Kingdom and Canada, as well as the United Nations General Assembly, which on 2 November 1983 with a vote of 108 to 9 condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law".^[7] Conversely, it was reported to have enjoyed broad public support in the United States^[8] as well as some sectors in Grenada from local groups who viewed the 4 year post-coup regime as illegitimate.^[9] The U.S. awarded more than 5,000 medals for merit and valor.^[10][11]

The date of the invasion is now a national holiday in Grenada, called

and other reorganizations.

Background

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Sir

.

On 16 October 1983, a party faction led by Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard seized power. Bishop was placed under house arrest. Mass protests against the action led to Bishop's escaping detention and reasserting his authority as the head of the government. Bishop was eventually captured and murdered along with several government officials loyal to him. The army under Hudson Austin then stepped in and formed a military council to rule the country. The governor-general, Paul Scoon, was placed under house arrest. The army announced a four-day total curfew where anyone seen on the streets would be subject to summary execution.

The

On 25 October, Grenada was invaded by the combined forces of the United States and the Regional Security System (RSS) based in Barbados, in an operation codenamed Operation Urgent Fury. The U.S. stated this was done at the request of the prime ministers of Barbados and Dominica, Tom Adams and Dame Eugenia Charles, respectively. Nonetheless, the invasion was highly criticized by the governments in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Kingdom. The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as "a flagrant violation of international law"^[17] by a vote of 108 in favour to 9, with 27 abstentions.^[18] The United Nations Security Council considered a similar resolution, which failed to pass when vetoed by the United States.

Airport

The Bishop government began constructing the

, which would enhance the Soviet and Cuban transportation of weapons to Central American insurgents and expand Soviet regional influence. Bishop's government claimed that the airport was built to accommodate commercial aircraft carrying tourists, pointing out that such jets could not land at Pearl's Airstrip on the island's north end (5,200 feet) and could not be expanded because its runway abutted a mountain at one end and the ocean at the other.

In 1983, then-member of the United States House of Representatives Ron Dellums (D, California), traveled to Grenada on a fact-finding mission, having been invited by the country's prime minister. Dellums described his findings before Congress:

... based on my personal observations, discussion and analysis of the new international airport under construction in Grenada, it is my conclusion that this project is specifically now and has always been for the purpose of economic development and is not for military use. ... It is my thought that it is absurd, patronizing, and totally unwarranted for the United States government to charge that this airport poses a military threat to the United States' national security.^[19]

In March 1983, President Ronald Reagan began issuing warnings about the threat posed to the United States and the Caribbean by the "Soviet-Cuban militarization" of the Caribbean as evidenced by the excessively long airplane runway being built, as well as intelligence sources indicating increased Soviet interest in the island. He said that the 9,000-foot (2,700 m) runway and the numerous fuel storage tanks were unnecessary for commercial flights, and that evidence pointed that the airport was to become a Cuban-Soviet forward military airbase.^[20]

On 29 May 2009 the

First day of the invasion

The invasion commenced at 05:00 on 25 October 1983. American forces refuelled and departed from the

launchers.

The main objectives on the first day of the invasion were the capture of the

. In addition, a number of special operations missions were undertaken to obtain intelligence and secure key individuals and equipment. In general, many of these mission were plagued by inadequate intelligence, planning, and accurate maps of any kind (the American forces mostly relied upon tourist maps).

Cuban forces in Grenada

The nature of the Cuban military presence in Grenada was more complex than initially suggested.[24] As in Angola, Ethiopia, and other nations with large contingents of Cuban troops, the line between civilians and military personnel was blurred. For example, Fidel Castro often described Cuban construction crews deployed overseas as "workers and soldiers at the same time"; the duality of their role being consistent with Havana's 'citizen soldier' tradition.^[24] According to journalist Bob Woodward in his book Veil, captured "military advisers" from the aforementioned countries were actually accredited diplomats and included their dependents. None took any actual part in the fighting.^[25] Other historians have asserted that most of the supposed civil technicians on Grenada were Cuban special forces and combat engineers.^[26]

Navy SEAL reconnaissance missions

U.S. Special Operations Forces were deployed to Grenada beginning on October 23, before the invasion on October 25.

Air-Landing at Point Salines

At midnight on October 24, the A and B companies of the 1st Battalion of the

By 10 AM, the air strip had been cleared of obstructions and transport planes were able to land directly and unload additional reinforcements, including

The Rangers proceeded to fan out and secure the surrounding area, including negotiating the surrender of over a hundred Cubans in an aviation hangar. However, a jeep-mounted Ranger patrol became lost searching for

Capture of Pearls Airport

Close to midnight on October 24, a platoon of Navy SEALs, from SEAL Team 4, under Lieutenant Mike Walsh approached the beach near

Raid on Radio Free Grenada

On the early morning of the 25th, another team from

Raids on Fort Rupert and Richmond Hill Prison

On the October 25, raids were undertaken by

Mission to rescue Governor General Scoon

The last major special operation was a mission to rescue and evacuate

AH-1 Cobra

attack helicopters were called in to support the besieged SEALs, but the SEALs remained trapped for the next 24 hours.

At 7 PM on October 25, 250 U.S. Marines from G Company of the

Airstrikes

Airstrikes were undertaken by

Second day of the invasion

On the second day, U.S. Commander on the ground, General Trobaugh of the 82nd Airborne Division, had two goals: securing the perimeter around Salines Airport and rescuing the U.S. students they had learned were at the campus in Anse. Because of the lack of undamaged helicopters after the losses on the first day, the Army had to delay pursuing the second objective until it made contact with Marine forces.

Attack on the Cuban compound

Early in the morning of the 26th, a patrol from the 2nd Battalion of the 325th Infantry Regiment was ambushed by Cuban forces near the village of Calliste, suffering six wounded and two killed in the ensuing firefight including the commander of Company B. Following that, U.S. Navy air strikes and an artillery bombardment by 105mm howitzers targeting the main Cuban encampment eventually lead to their surrender at 8:30. US forces pushed on into the village of Frequente, where they discovered a Cuban weapon cache supposedly sufficient to equip "six battalions." There, a reconnaissance platoon mounted of gun-jeeps was ambushed by Cuban forces, but return fire from the jeeps, and mortars from a nearby infantry unit inflicted four casualties on the ambushers at no U.S. loss. Cuban resistance largely ended after these engagements.^[28]

'Rescue' at Grand Anse

In the afternoon of the 26, US Rangers of the 2nd Battalion of the Ranger Regiment mounted U.S. Marine

Third day of the invasion and after

By October 27, organized resistance was rapidly diminishing, but the American forces did not yet realize this. The Marine 22nd MAU and 8th Regiment continued advancing along the coast and capturing additional towns, meeting little resistance, although one patrol did encounter a single BTR-60 during the night and dispatched it with their

The Army had reports that PRA forces were amassing at the Calivigny barracks, only five kilometers miles away from the Point Salines airfield. They therefore organized an air assault by the 2nd Battalion of the

In the following days, resistance ended entirely and the Army and Marines spread across the island, arresting PRA officials, seizing caches of weapons, and seeing to the repatriation of Cuban engineers.

On November 1, two companies from the 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit made a combined sea and helicopter landing on the island of Carriacou 17 miles (27 km) to the northeast of Grenada. The nineteen Grenadan soldiers defending the island surrendered without a fight. This was the last military action of the campaign.^[31]

Outcome

Official U.S. sources state that some of their opponents were well prepared and well positioned and put up stubborn resistance, to the extent that the U.S. called in two

, had overwhelmed the defenders.

Nearly 8,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines had participated in Operation Urgent Fury along with 353 Caribbean allies of the Caribbean Peace Forces. U.S. forces sustained 19 killed and 116 wounded; Cuban forces sustained 25 killed, 59 wounded, and 638 combatants captured. Grenadian forces suffered 45 dead and 358 wounded; at least 24 civilians were also killed, 18 of whom died in the accidental bombing of a Grenadian mental hospital.^[3]: 62 The U.S. also destroyed a significant amount of Grenada's military hardware, including six APCs and an armored car.^[23] A second armored car was impounded and later shipped back to Marine Corps Base Quantico for inspection.^[32]

UH-60 Blackhawk

.

Reaction in the United States

A month after the invasion, Time magazine described it as having "broad popular support." A congressional study group concluded that the invasion had been justified, as most members felt that U.S. students at the university near a contested runway could have been taken hostage as U.S. diplomats in Iran had been four years previously. The group's report caused House Speaker Tip O'Neill to change his position on the issue from opposition to support.^[8]

impeach Ronald Reagan.^[8]

In the evening of 25 October 1983 by telephone, on the newscast Nightline, anchor Ted Koppel spoke to medical students on Grenada who stated that they were safe and did not feel their lives were in danger. The next evening, again by telephone, medical students told Koppel how grateful they were for the invasion and the Army Rangers, which probably saved their lives. State Department officials had assured the medical students that they would be able to complete their medical school education in the United States.^[33][34]

International reaction

On 2 November 1983 by a vote of 108 in favour to 9 (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Dominica, El Salvador, Israel, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and the United States) voting against, with 27 abstentions, the United Nations General Assembly adopted General Assembly Resolution 38/7, which "deeply deplores the armed intervention in Grenada, which constitutes a flagrant violation of international law and of the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of that State."^[7] It went on to deplore “the death of innocent civilians” the “killing of the prime Minister and other prominent Grenadians” and called for an “immediate cessation of the armed intervention” and demanded “that free elections be organized”.

This was the first military rollback of a Communist nation. The Soviet Union said that Grenada had for a long time been the object of United States threats, that the invasion violated international law, and that no small nation not to the liking of the United States would find itself safe if the aggression against Grenada was not rebuffed. The governments of some countries stated that the United States intervention was a return to the era of barbarism. The governments of other countries said the United States by its invasion had violated several treaties and conventions to which it was a party.^[35]

A similar resolution was discussed in the United Nations Security Council and although receiving widespread support it was ultimately vetoed by the United States.^[36][37][38] President of the United States

UN General Assembly said "it didn't upset my breakfast at all."^[39]

Grenada is part of the Commonwealth of Nations and, following the invasion, it requested help from other Commonwealth members. The invasion was opposed by the United Kingdom, Trinidad and Tobago, and Canada, among others.^[3]: 50 British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, a close ally of Reagan on other matters, personally opposed the U.S. invasion. Reagan told her it might happen; she did not know for sure it was coming until three hours before. At 12:30 am on the morning of the invasion, Thatcher sent a message to Reagan:

This action will be seen as intervention by a Western country in the internal affairs of a small independent nation, however unattractive its regime. I ask you to consider this in the context of our wider East/West relations and of the fact that we will be having in the next few days to present to our Parliament and people the siting of Cruise missiles in this country. I must ask you to think most carefully about these points. I cannot conceal that I am deeply disturbed by your latest communication. You asked for my advice. I have set it out and hope that even at this late stage you will take it into account before events are irrevocable.^[40][41] (The full text remains classified.)

Reagan told Thatcher before anyone else that the invasion would begin in a few hours, but ignored her complaints. None of the worries Thatcher had mentioned came true, and she publicly supported the American action. Reagan phoned to apologized for the miscommunication, and the long-term friendly relationship endured.^[42][43]

Aftermath

See also: Grenada since 1983

Following the U.S. victory, the American and Caribbean governments quickly reaffirmed Queen Elizabeth II as Grenada's lawful ruler, and recognized Scoon as her only lawful representative in Grenada. In accordance with Commonwealth constitutional practice, Scoon assumed power as interim head of government, and formed an advisory council which named

Democratic elections held in December 1984 were won by the Grenada National Party and a government was formed led by Prime Minister Herbert Blaize

.

A-7E from USS Independence

over Port Salines airfield

U.S. forces remained in Grenada after combat operations finished in December as part of Operation Island Breeze. Elements remaining, including

special forces, and a specialized intelligence detachment

, performed security missions and assisted members of the Caribbean Peacekeeping Force and the Royal Grenadian Police Force.

United States

The invasion showed problems with the U.S. government's "information apparatus," which

report for the Joint Chiefs of Staff showed an even lower count.^[3]

Also of concern were the problems that the invasion showed with the military. There was a lack of intelligence about Grenada, which exacerbated the difficulties faced by the quickly assembled invasion force. For example, it was not known that the students were actually at two different campuses and there was a thirty-hour delay in reaching students at the second campus.

U.S. Air Force and Navy fighter/bomber support aircraft providing close air support mistakenly fired upon and killed U.S. ground forces due to differences in charts and location coordinates, data, and methods of calling for fire support. Communications between services were also noted as not being compatible and hindered the coordination of operations. The landing strip was drawn-in by hand on the map given to some members of the invasion force.^{[citation needed}

]

A heavily fictionalized account of the invasion from a U.S. military perspective is shown in the 1986 Clint Eastwood motion picture Heartbreak Ridge, in which Marines replaced the actual roles of U.S. Army units. Due to the movie's portrayal of several incompetent officers and NCOs, the Army opted out its military support of the movie.

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Main article:

Goldwater-Nichols Act

Analysis by the

Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986

(Pub. L.99–433).

The Goldwater-Nichols Act reworked the command structure of the United States military, thereby making the most sweeping changes to the United States Department of Defense since the department was established in the

U.S. Special Operations Command

in 1987.

Other

October 25 is a national holiday in Grenada, called

Thanksgiving Day

, to commemorate the invasion.

St. George's University built a monument on its True Blue Campus to memorialize the U.S. servicemen killed during the invasion, and marks the day with an annual memorial ceremony.

In 2008, the

Cuban and Grenadian governments are still seeking to locate a suitable site for the monument.^[44]

Order of battle

See also: Caribbean Peace Force

Leading joint forces,

Navy, and the Marine Corps from the Flag Spaces aboard the aircraft carrier USS Independence. Vice Admiral Metcalf assigned to the amphibious force (on MARG flagship – USS Guam) during combat operations), designated Task Force 124, the mission of seizing the Pearls Airport and the port of Grenville, and of neutralizing any opposing forces in the area.^[45] Simultaneously, Army Rangers (Task Force 121) – together with elements of the 82d Airborne Division (Task Force 123) – would secure points at the southern end of the island, including the nearly completed jet airfield under construction near Point Salines. Task Group 20.5, a carrier battle group built around USS Independence (CV-62), and Air Force elements would support the ground forces.^[45]

US ground forces

• US Army
  2nd Ranger Battalions
  75th Infantry Regiment conducted a low-level parachute assault to secure Point Salines Airport. Hunter Army Airfield, GA and Ft. Lewis, WA
• US Army 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment – Delta (AKA Delta Force) Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army
  82nd Airborne Division
  – 2nd Brigade Task Force (325th Airborne Infantry Regiment plus supporting units) and 3rd Brigade Task Force (1st and 2nd Battalions of the 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment, plus supporting units) 82nd MP General Support Platoon HHC. Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army Co E (Scout),
  60th Infantry Regiment, 9th Infantry Division (inactivated in 1984 and assets used to form: Co E (Long Range Surveillance) 109th MI Battalion
  , 9th Infantry Division (Motorized)), Fort Lewis, WA.
• US Army 27th Engineer Battalion of the 20th Engineer Brigade (Airborne), Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 548th Engineer Battalion Ft Bragg, NC
• US Army 160th Aviation Battalion Ft Campbell, KY
• US Army 18th Aviation Company, 269th Aviation Battalion Ft. Bragg, NC
• 1st and 2nd 82nd Combat Aviation Battalion, Fort Bragg N.C.
• 1 SQN 17 Air Cavalry Airborne, Fort Bragg N.C.
• US Army 65th MP Company (Airborne), 118th MP Company (Airborne), and HHD, 503rd MP Battalion (Airborne) of the 16th Military Police Brigade (Airborne), XVIII Airborne Corps, Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 411th MP Company of the 89th Military Police Brigade, III Corps, Ft. Hood, Texas
• US Army
  35th Signal Brigade
  , Ft. Bragg, NC
• US Army 50th Signal Battalion,
  35th Signal Brigade
  , Ft. Bragg, NC
• US Army
  525th Military Intelligence Brigade
  , Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 9th Psychological Operations Battalion (Airborne) of the 4th Psychological Operations Group (Airborne) – provided loudspeaker support and dissemination of informational pamphlets. Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army
  1st Corps Support Command COSCOM, 7th Trans Battalion
  , 546th LMT Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 44th Medical Brigade – Personnel from the 44th Medical Brigade and operational units including the 5th MASH were deployed. Fort Bragg, NC
• US Army 82nd Finance Company MPT
• US Marine Corps 22nd Marine Amphibious Unit Camp Lejeune, NC
• US Navy SEAL Team 6
  Virginia Beach, VA
• US Air Force Detachment 1, 507th Tactical Air Control Wing (Fort Bragg, NC) – jump qualified TACPs who were attached to and deployed with the 82d Airborne, Fort Bragg, NC (now the 14th ASOS, part of the 18th Air Support Operations Group)
• US Air Force
  FACs
  who were attached to and deployed with Detachment 1, 507th Tac Air Control Wg and the 82d Airborne, Fort Bragg, NC
• US Air Force 5th Weather Squadron, 5th Weather Wing (MAC) Fort Bragg, NC – jump qualified Combat Weathermen who are attached and deployed with the 82nd, now in AFSOC

U.S. Air Force

• C-130 Hercules
  combat airlift support, cargo and supplies
• Various
  ground-attack aircraft for close air support
• A-10 Warthogs
• F-15 Eagles
• F-15 Eagles
• C-141 Starlifters
• 16th Special Operations Wing – flew AC-130H Spectre
  gunships
• Fort Bragg
  , NC complex to Grenada
• C-141 Starlifteraircraft
  in the air landing of Airborne troops, 63rd Security Police Squadron provided airfield security support – (Norton AFB CA)
• Altus AFB
  , OK) – provided a 44-man Airbase Ground Defense flight (Oct–Nov 1983)
• 19th Air Refueling Wing
  – provided aerial refueling support for all other aircraft
• 507th Tactical Air Control Wing (elements of the 21st TASS at Shaw AFB, SC and Detachment 1, Fort Bragg, NC) – provided Tactical Air Control Parties (TACPs) in support of the 82nd Airborne Division
• E-3 Sentry AWACS
  aircraft
• 62nd Security Police Group (Provisional) Multi Squadron Law Enforcement & Security Forces – Prisoner detaining and transport attached to 82nd Airborne
• 60th Military Airlift Wing's 60th Security Police Squadron (Travis AFB, CA) provided airfield security in Grenada as well as Barbados.

U.S. Navy

Two formations of U.S. warships took part in the invasion.

Carrier Group Four

was allocated the designation Task Group 20.5 for the operation.

Independence carrier battle group

Surface warships		Carrier Air Wing Six (CVW-6) squadrons embarked aboard flagship Independence
USS Independence (CV-62)		F-14A	E-2C
USS Coontz (DDG-40)		Fighter Squadron 32 (VF-32) : 14 F-14A	EA-6B
USS Moosbrugger (DD-980)		KA-6D	Helicopter Antisubmarine Squadron (15 HS-15): 6 SH-3H
USS Caron (DD-970)		Attack Squadron 87 (VA-87) : 12 A-7E	Sea Control Squadron 28 (VS-28): 10 S-3A
USS Clifton Sprague (FFG-16)		Attack Squadron 15 (VA-15) : 12 A-7E	COD: 1 C-1A
USS Suribachi (AE-21)		----	----

In addition, the following ships supported naval operations:

USS Kidd (DDG-993), USS Aquila (PHM-4), USS Aubrey Fitch (FFG-34), USS Briscoe (DD-977), USS Portsmouth (SSN-707), USS Recovery (ARS-43), USS Saipan (LHA-2), USS Sampson (DDG-10), USS Samuel Eliot Morison (FFG-13), USS John L. Hall (FFG-32), USS Silversides (SSN-679), USS Taurus (PHM-3), USNS Neosho (T-AO-143), USS Caloosahatchee (AO-98) and USS Richmond K. Turner (CG-20).

U.S. Coast Guard

USCGC Chase (WHEC-718)

USCGC Cape York (WPB - 95332)

See also

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Urgent was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Grell, Richard A. Central America War: Central America, 1979 to 1992 (PDF). USContraWar.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Cole, Ronald (1997). "Operation Urgent Fury: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada" (PDF). Retrieved 9 November 2006.
4. ^ "Medals Outnumber G.I.'S In Grenada Assault". The New York Times. 30 March 1984.
5. ^ "Soldiers During the Invasion of Grenada". CardCow Vintage Postcards.
6. ^ "Caribbean Islands – A Regional Security System". country-data.com.
7. ^ ^{a b} "United Nations General Assembly resolution 38/7". United Nations. 2 November 1983. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Magnuson, Ed (21 November 1983). "Getting Back to Normal". Time.
9. ISBN 1-4000-5357-9
   .
10. ^ Tessler, Ray (19 August 1991). "Gulf War Medals Stir Up Old Resentment". Los Angeles Times. p. 2. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
11. ^ "Overdecorated". Time. 9 April 1984.
12. ^ ^{a b} "St. Vincent's Prime Minister to officiate at renaming of Grenada international airport". Caribbean Net News newspaper. 26 May 2009.
13. ^ ^{a b} "BISHOP'S HONOUR: Grenada airport renamed after ex-PM". Caribbean News Agency (CANA). 30 May 2009.
14. ^
    YouTube
15. ^ ^{a b} Martin, Douglas (2013-09-09). "Paul Scoon, Who Invited Grenada Invaders, Dies at 78". The New York Times.
16. ISBN 9780062029102
    .
17. ^ "United Nations General Assembly resolution 38/7". United Nations. 2 November 1983.
18. ^ "Assembly calls for cessation of "armed intervention" in Grenada". UN Chronicle. 1984.
19. ^ Peter Collier, David Horowitz (January 1987). "Another "Low Dishonest Decade" on the Left". Commentary.
20. ^ Gailey, Phil; Warren Weaver Jr. (26 March 1983). "Grenada". New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2008.
21. ^ Carter, Gercine (26 September 2010). "Ex-airport boss recalls Cubana crash". Nation Newspaper. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
22. ISBN 0-14-200465-0
    .
23. ^
    ISBN 0-85045-583-9
    pp 28-48.
24. ^
    ISBN 978-0674893252
    .
25. ^ Woodward, Bob (1987). Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987. Simon & Schuster.
26. ^ Leckie, Robert (1998). The Wars of America. Castle Books.
27. ^ ^{a b} "SEAL History: Navy SEALs in Grenada Operation URGENT FURY". Navy SEAL Museum. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
28. ^ ^{a b c d} Stuart, Richard W. (2008). Operation Urgent Fury: The Invasion of Grenada, October 1983 (PDF). U.S. Army.
29. ^ ^{a b c d} "Turning the Tide: Operation Urgent Fury". Combat Reform. Retrieved 6 April 2016.
30. ^ ^{a b c d} Kreisher, Otto. "Operation URGENT FURY – Grenada". Marine Corps Association & Foundation.
31. ^ Kreisher, Otto (October 2003). "Operation URGENT FURY – Grenada". Marine Corps Association and Foundation. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
32. ^ Fortitudine: Newsletter of the Marine Corps Historical Program, Volumes 15-18. Tommell, Anthony Wayne. History and Museums Division, U.S. Marine Corps, 1985.
33. ^ Nightline – 25 Oct 1983 – ABC – TV news: Vanderbilt Television News Archive
34. ^ Television News Archive: Nightline
35. ^ United Nations Yearbook, Volume 37, 1983, Department of Public Information, United Nations, New York
36. ^ Zunes, Stephen (October 2003). "The U.S. Invasion of Grenada: A Twenty Year Retrospective". Foreign Policy in Focus. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
37. ^ "Spartacus Educational".
38. ^ "United Nations Security Council vetoes". United Nations. 28 October 1983. Retrieved 5 March 2016.
39. ^ "Reagan: Vote loss in U.N. 'didn't upset my breakfast'". The Spokesman-Review. 4 November 1983. Retrieved 30 June 2013.
40. ^ "Thatcher letter to Reagan ("deeply disturbed" at U.S. plans) [memoirs extract]". Margaret Thatcher Foundation. 25 October 1983. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
41. ^ Thatcher, Margaret (1993) The Downing Street Years page 331.
42. ^ John Campbell, Margaret Thatcher Volume Two: The Iron Lady (2011) pp 273-79.
43. ^ Gary Williams, "‘A Matter of Regret’: Britain, the 1983 Grendada Crisis, and the Special Relationship." Twentieth Century British History 12#2 (2001): 208-230.
44. ^ For Cubans – "The Nation Newspaper", 13 October 2008
45. ^ ^{a b} Spector, Ronald (1987). "U.S. Marines in Grenada 1983" (PDF). p. 6.

Primary sources

• Grenada Documents, an Overview & Selection, DOD & State Dept, Sept 1984, 813 pages.
• Grenada, A Preliminary Report, DOD & State
• Joint Overview, Operation Urgent Fury, 1 May 1985, 87 pages

Further reading

• Adkin, Mark (1989). Urgent Fury: The Battle for Grenada: The Truth Behind the Largest U.S. Military Operation Since Vietnam.
  ISBN 0-669-20717-9
  .
• Brands, H. W., Jr. (1987). "Decisions on American Armed Intervention: Lebanon, Dominican Republic, and Grenada".
  JSTOR 2151304.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link
  )
• Cole, Ronald H. (1997). Operation Urgent Fury: The Planning and Execution of Joint Operations in Grenada, 12 October - 2 November 1983 (PDF). Washington, D.C.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Official Pentagon study.
• Gilmore, William C. (1984). The Grenada Intervention: Analysis and Documentation. New York: Facts on File.
  ISBN 0-87196-920-3
  .
• Russell, Lee (1985). Grenada 1983. London: Osprey.
  ISBN 0-85045-583-9
  .

External links

• Invasion of Grenada and Its Political Repercussions from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
• Operation: Urgent Fury, Grenada
• The 1983 Invasion of Grenada, Operation: Urgent Fury
• "Grenada, Operation Urgent Fury (23 October – 21 November 1983)"—
  Naval History & Heritage Command
  , U.S. Navy
• Grenada—a 1984 comic book about the invasion written by the CIA.

Category:1983 in Grenada Category:1983 in the United States Category:Airborne operations Category:Cold War conflicts Category:Communism in Grenada Category:Conflicts in 1983 Category:Cuba–United States relations Category:Grenada–United States relations Category:History of Grenada Category:Invasions by the United States Category:Invasions of Grenada Category:Military expeditions of the United States Category:Operations involving American special forces Category:Reagan administration controversies Category:United States Army Rangers Category:United States Marine Corps in the 20th century Category:United States–Caribbean relations Grenada Grenada Grenada Grenada Grenada Grenada Grenada Grenada Category:Invasions

160 kilometres (99 mi)

References

External links

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