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Coordinates: 37°39′46″N 62°11′33″E / 37.66278°N 62.19250°E / 37.66278; 62.19250
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Merv
Merw (in Turkmen)
Turkmen
Site notes
ConditionIn ruins
Asia-Pacific
History of Greater Iran
Pre-Islamic
BCE / BC
Caucasian Iberia
 c. 302 BCE – 580 CE
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom 250–125
Parthian Empire 248 BCE–224 CE
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Akhsiket was a city in the Ferghana Valley in eastern Uzbekistan, located on the banks of the Amu Darya river near today's Namangan.

Earliest artifacts from the site show habitation from as early as the 2nd century BC. The site was permanently abandoned during the Mongol invasions in 1220 AD. In the Early Islamic period Akhsiket was a regional capital in Ferghana. It was a center for crucible steel production during this time, and several archaeological excavations in the latter half of the 20th century and early 21st century have revealed the character of the city during its lifetime.

History

Merv has prehistoric roots: archaeological surveys have revealed many traces of village life as far back as the 3rd millennium BC and have associated the area culturally with the

Zend-Avesta (commentaries on the Avesta) mentions Merv (under the name of Mouru) along with Balkh. In Zoroastrianism, the god Ahura Mazda created Mouru as one of sixteen perfect lands.[1]

Under the

Achaemenid expansion into the region[2] of Cyrus the Great
(559–530 BC), but later strata deeply cover the Achaemenid levels at the site.

temples for many centuries until its Islamicization.[4][5] At the site of Gyaur Kala and Bairam Ali Buddhism was followed and practised often at the Buddhist stupa.[6]

After the

Hephthalite
occupation from the end of the 5th century to 565 a.d briefly interrupted Sassanid rule.

Arab occupation and influence

Muslim. Arab immigration to the area was substantial. A Chinese captured at Talas, Du Huan, was brought to Baghdad and toured the caliphate. He observed that in Merv, Khurasan, Arabs and Persians lived in mixed concentrations.[8]

Merv gained renewed importance in February 748 when the Iranian general

Greco-Bactrians
) into the Arab world.

Throughout the Abbasid era (750-1258), Merv remained the capital and most important city of

Khurramiyya
inspired by him persisted in Merv until the 12th century.

During this period Merv, like

Ahmad Ibn Hanbal (780–855). The city continued to have a substantial Christian community. In 1009 the Archbishop of Merv sent a letter to the Patriarch at Baghdad asking that the Keraites be allowed to fast less than other Nestorian Christians.[9]

As the caliphate weakened, Arab rule in Merv was replaced by that of the

Samanids and later the Ghaznavids
.

Turks in Merv

History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
Court of Seljuk ruler Tughril III, circa 1200 CE.
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In 1037, the

buried
at Merv.

During this period Merv expanded to its greatest size—Arab and

Persian geographers termed it "the mother of the world", the "rendezvous of great and small", the "chief city of Khurasan" and the capital of the eastern Islamic world. Written sources also attest to a large library and madrasa founded by Nizam al-Mulk (Vizier: 1064-1092), as well as many other major cultural institutions. Perhaps most importantly, Merv was said[by whom?] to have a market that is "the best of the major cities of Iran and Khurasan" (Herrmann 1999). According to historian Tertius Chandler, Merv was the largest city in the world from 1145 to 1153, with a population of 200,000.[10]

Sanjar's rule, marked by conflict with the

Khwarazmians, ended in 1153 when Turkish Ghuzz nomads from beyond the Amu Darya pillaged the city. Subsequently, Merv changed hands between the Khwarazmians of Khiva, the Ghuzz, and the Ghurids - it began to lose importance relative to Khurasan's other major city, Nishapur
.

Mongols in Merv

In 1221 Merv opened its gates to

Juvayni
, writing a generation after the destruction of Merv, wrote

"The Mongols ordered that, apart from four hundred artisans. .., the whole population, including the women and children, should be killed, and no one, whether woman or man, be spared. To each [Mongol soldier] was allotted the execution of three or four hundred Persians. So many had been killed by nightfall that the mountains became hillocks, and the plain was soaked with the blood of the mighty."

Some historians[

most bloody captures of a city in world history
.

Excavations revealed drastic rebuilding of the city's fortifications in the aftermath, but the prosperity of the city had passed. The Mongol invasion spelt the eclipse of Merv and indeed of other major centres for more than a century. After the Mongol conquest, Merv became part of the

Kartids, vassals of the Ilkhanids. By 1380 Merv belonged to the empire of Timur
(Tamerlane).

Uzbeks in Merv and its final destruction

In 1505 the

Zarafshan
river.

Nineteenth century

Part of a series on the
History of Turkmenistan
"Turkmens at the gates of the ancient city of Merv, 1914"
Antiquity
Middle Ages
Early modern history
Modern history
Related historical regions
flag Turkmenistan portal

Merv passed to the

toward Herat
.

Remains

Some exploratory excavations at Merv were conducted in 1885[11] by the Russian general A.V. Komarov, the governor of the Transcaspian oblast, 1883–89; Komarov employed his Tsarist troops as excavators and published his collection of trophy artifacts and coins from the area in 1900.[12] The first fully professional dig was directed by Valentin Alekseevich Zhukovsky of the Imperial Archaeological Commission, in 1890 and published in 1894.[13] The American Carnegie Institute's excavations were under the direction of a geologist, Raphael Pumpelly, and a German archaeologist, Hubert Schmidt.

Merv is currently the focus of the Ancient Merv Project (initially as the International Merv Project).[14] From 1992 to 2000, a joint team of archaeologists from Turkmenistan and the UK have made remarkable discoveries. In 2001, a new collaboration was started between the Institute of Archaeology, University College London and the Turkmen authorities. [citation needed] This Ancient Merv Project is concerned with the complex conservation and management issues posed by this remarkable site, furthering our understanding of the site through archaeological research, and disseminating the results of the work to the widest possible audience.

Organization of remains

Merv consists of a few discrete walled cities very near to each other, each of which was constructed on uninhabited land by builders of different eras, used, and then abandoned and never rebuilt. Four walled cities correspond to the chief periods of Merv's importance: the oldest, Erkgala, corresponds to Achaemenid Merv, and is the smallest of the three. Gäwürgala (also known as Gyaur Gala), which surrounds Erkgala, comprises the

Sassanian metropolis and also served as an industrial suburb to the Abbasid/Seljuk city, Soltangala – by far the largest of the three. The smaller Timurid city was founded a short distance to the south
and is now called Abdyllahangala. Various other ancient buildings are scattered between and around these four cities; all of the sites are preserved in the “Ancient Merv Archaeological Park” just north of the modern village of Baýramaly and thirty kilometers east of the large Soviet-built city of Mary (Herrmann 1993).

Erk Gala

Erk Gala

Erk Gala (from

Hellenistic city and later the Arc of the Islamic
city.

Gäwürgala

The foundation of Gäwürgala (

Umayyad province of Khurasan
and grew in importance as Khurasan became the most loyally Muslim part of the Iranian world during Islam's first two centuries.

3D laser scan
image of Gäwürgala town walls

Gäwürgala's most visible remaining structures are its defensive installations. Three walls, one built atop the next, are in evidence. A Seleucid wall, graduated in the interior and straight on the exterior, forms a platform for the second, larger wall, built of mudbricks and stepped on the interior. The form of this wall is similar to other

Sassanian
coins has been found there, hinting the extraordinary political stability of this period.

Even after the foundation of Soltangala by Abu Muslim at the start of the Abbasid dynasty, Gäwürgala persisted as a suburb of the larger Soltangala. In Gäwürgala are concentrated many Abbasid-era "industrial" buildings: pottery kilns, steel, iron and copper-working workshops and so on. A well-preserved pottery kiln has an intact vaulted arch support and a square firepit. Gyaur Gala seems to have been the craftsmens' quarters throughout the Abbasid and pre-Seljuk periods (Herrmann, "Seventh Season" 13).[16]

Soltangala

Sultan Sanjar mausoleum

Soltangala (from Sultan Qala, the sultan's fortress) is by far the largest of Merv's cities. Textual sources (Herrmann 1999) establish that it was

Abbasid rebellion, who symbolized the beginning of the new Caliphate by commissioning monumental structures to the west of the Gäwürgala walls, in what then became Soltangala. The area was quickly walled and became the core of medieval Merv; centuries of prosperity which followed are attested to by the many Abbasid-era köshks discovered in and outside of Soltangala. Kushks (Persian
, Kushk, "pavilion", "kiosk"), which comprise the chief remains of Abbasid Merv, are a building type unique to Central Asia during this period. A kind of semi-fortified two-story palace whose corrugated walls give it a unique and striking appearance, köshks were the residences of Merv's elite. The second story of these structures comprised living quarters; the first story may have been used for storage. Parapets lined the roof, which was often used for living quarters as well. Merv's largest and best-preserved Abbasid köşk is the Greater Gyzgala (Turkmen, "maiden's fortress"), located just outside the Soltangala's western wall; this structure consisted of 17 rooms surrounding a central courtyard. The nearby Lesser Gyzgala had extraordinarily thick walls with deep corrugations, as well as multiple interior stairways leading to second-story living quarters. All of Merv's kushks are in precarious states of preservation (Herrmann 1999).

However, the most important of Soltangala's surviving buildings are Seljuk constructions. In the 11th century CE, the nomadic Oghuz Turks, formerly vassals of the Khwarazmshah in the northern steppes, began to move southward under the leadership of the Seljuk clan and its ruler Togrul Beg. Togrul's conquest of Merv in 1037 revitalized the city; under his descendants, especially Sanjar, who made it his residence, Merv found itself at the center of a large multicultural empire.

Evidence of this prosperity is found throughout the Soltangala. Many of these are concentrated in Soltangala's citadel, the Shahryar Ark (Persian, "the Sovereign's citadel") of the, located on its east side. In the center of the Sharhryar Ark is located the Seljuk palace probably built by Sanjar. The surviving mud brick walls lead to the conclusion that this palace, relatively small, was composed of tall single-story rooms surrounding a central court along with four axial iwans at the entrance to each side (Ettinghausen 276). Low areas nearby seem to indicate a large garden which included an artificial lake; similar gardens were found in other Central Asian palaces (Williams 2002). Any remnants of interior or exterior decoration have been lost due to erosion or theft.

3D laser scanner
positioned for work
Exterior of Kepderihana's south wall

Another notable Seljuk structure within the Shahryar Ark is the kepderihana (from Persian, "Kaftar Khana, or "pigeon house", i.e., the columbarium). This mysterious building, among the best-preserved in the whole Merv oasis, comprises one long and narrow windowless room with many tiers of niches across the walls. It is believed by some [sources] that the kepter khana (there are more elsewhere in Merv and Central Asia) was indeed a pigeon roost used to raise pigeons, in order to collect their dung which is used in growing the melons for which Merv was famous. Others, just as justifiably (Herrmann 1999), see the kepderihanas as libraries or treasuries, due to their location in high status areas next to important structures.

The best-preserved of all the structures in Merv is the 12th-century

Sultan Sanjar
, also in Sultan Gala. It is the largest of Seljuk mausoleums and is also the first dated mosque-mausoleum complex, a form which was later to become common. It is square, 27 meters per side, with two entrances on opposite sides; a large central dome supported by an octagonal system of ribs and arches covers the interior (Ettinghausen 270). The dome's exterior was turquoise, and its height made it quite imposing; it was said that approaching caravans could see the mausoleum while still a day's march from the city. The mausoleum's decoration, in typical early Seljuk style, was conservative, with interior stucco work and geometric brick decoration, now mainly lost, on the outside (Ettinghausen 271). With the exception of the recently "reconstructed" exterior decoration, the mausoleum is largely intact, and remains, just as is in the 12th century.

A final set of

Seljuk remains are the walls of the Soltangala. These fortifications, which in large part still remain, began as eight-to-nine-metre-high (26 to 30 ft) mud brick structures, inside of which were chambers for defenders to shoot arrows from. There were horseshoe-shaped towers every 15 to 35 metres (49 to 115 ft). These walls, however, did not prove to be effective because they were not of adequate thickness to withstand catapults and other artillery. By the mid-12th century, the galleries were filled in, and the wall was greatly strengthened. A secondary, smaller wall was built in front of the Soltangala's main wall, and finally the medieval city's suburbs – known today as Isgendergala – were enclosed by a 5-metre-thick (16 ft) wall. The three walls sufficed to hold off the Mongol army for at least one of its offensives, before ultimately succumbing in 1221.[17]

Many ceramics have also been recovered from the Abbasid and Seljuk eras, primarily from Gäwürgala, the city walls of Soltangala, and the Shahryar Ark. The Gäwürgala ware was primarily late

Buddhist temple in the southern suburbs of Sultan Gala.[18]

Shaim Kala

Shaim Kala was built in the 7th century

Arab expansion, and Merv began to grow until briefly the largest city in the world
during the 12th century. Shaim Kala was a self-contained walled city intended to relieve the over-crowding, and to deal with religious and political discontent of the newly arrived peoples.[19]

Abdyllahangala

Abdyllahangala is the post medieval Timrid era city to the south of the main complex.[20]

Gallery

  • Great Kyz Qala
    Great Kyz Qala
  • Little Kyz Qala
    Little Kyz Qala
  • part of Kyz Qala
    part of Kyz Qala
  • Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum
    Sultan Sanjar Mausoleum
  • Mosque (Merv)
    Mosque (Merv)
  • Merv coin
    Merv coin
  • Soltan Sanjaryň mawzoleýi
    Soltan Sanjaryň mawzoleýi

Geography

The oasis of Merv is situated on the

Tejen and Murgab rivers, until they lose themselves in the Karakum Desert. Thus they make Merv a sort of watch tower over the entrance into Afghanistan on the north-west and at the same time create a stepping-stone or étape between north-east Persia and the states of Bokhara and Samarkand
.

Merv is advantageously situated in the inland delta of the Murghab River, which flows from its source in the Hindu Kush northwards through the Garagum desert. The Murghab delta region, known to the Greeks as

Indus and beyond) and the southwest-northeast route from Tus and Nishapur
to Bukhara and Samarkand.

This place was a stop on the Silk Road during the time of the Han dynasty. Here merchants could trade for fresh horses or camels at this oasis city.

Demographics

The present inhabitants of the oasis are primarily

Baluch and the Brahui
in the Merv Oasis as well.

Economy

The oasis is irrigated by an elaborate system of canals cut from the Murghab. The country has at all times been renowned throughout the East for its fertility. Every kind of cereal and many fruits grow in great abundance, e.g. wheat, millet, barley and melons, also rice and cotton. Cotton seeds from archaeological levels as far back as the 5th century are the first indication that cotton textiles were already an important economic component of the Sassanian city.

breed of horses and keep camels, sheep, cattle, asses and mules. Turkomans are workers in silver and armour. One of the discoveries of the 1990s excavations was a 9th- to 10th-century workshop where crucible steel was being produced, confirming in detail contemporary Islamic reports by Islamic scholar, al-Kindi (AD 801–866). He referred to the region of Khorasan as producing steel. This was made by a co-fusion process in which cast iron and wrought iron are melted together.[21][22]

Carpets from the region of Merv are sometimes considered superior to the Persian.[citation needed] They also make felts and a rough cloth of sheep's wool.

Climate

Merv is dry and hot in summer and cold in winter. The heat of summer is oppressive. The wind raises clouds of fine dust which fill the air, rendering it opaque, almost obscuring the noonday sun. These clouds make breathing difficult. In winter the climate is pleasant. Snow falls rarely, and when it does, it melts at once. The annual rainfall rarely exceeds 125 mm, and there is often no rain from June until October. While in summer temperatures can reach 45 °C (113 °F), in winter it they can be as low as −7 °C (19 °F). The average yearly temperature is 16 °C (61 °F).

International relations

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Turkmenistan

Twin towns and sister cities

Merv is

twinned
with

See also

  • Gunar Tepe

References and sources

References
  1. ^ Vendidad, Faragard-1
  2. ^ "Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Photography: Exploring the Medieval City of Merv, on the Silk Roads of Central Asia" by Tim Williams in Archaeology International, Issue 15 (2011–2012), pp. 74–88.
  3. ^ Antiochia Margiana
  4. ^ http://www.tourstoturkmenistan.com/en/sights/merv-mary/ruins-in-merv.html
  5. ^ http://www.medeniyet.gov.tm/index.php/en/culture-dialogue/119-gadymy-merwde-butparazlygy%C5%88-d%C3%B6re%C3%BD%C5%9Fi
  6. ^ http://www.asthabharati.org/Dia_July%20011/suni.htm
  7. ^ Muir pp. 295–6
  8. ^ Harvard University. Center for Middle Eastern Studies (1999). Harvard Middle Eastern and Islamic review, Volumes 5–7. Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Harvard University. p. 89. Retrieved 2010-11-28.
  9. ^ Cary-Elwes, Columba. China and the Cross. (New York: P. J. Kennedy and Sons, 1956)
  10. ^ "geography.about.com". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  11. ^ Merv, controlling the route from Herat, was conquered by Komarov's troops without much resistance in 1885, part of the Great Game: André Kamev, Le Turkménistan 2005:104
  12. ^ Fredrik T. Hiebert, Kakamyrat Gurbansähedow and Hubert Schmidt, A Central Asian Village at the Dawn of Civilization, Excavations at Anau (University of Pennsylvania) 2003:3.
  13. ^ V.A. Zhukovsky, Razvalinii starogo Merva (St Peterburg, 1894).
  14. ^ Institute of Archaeology, University College London : Ancient Merv Project.
  15. ^ A galaxy of ancient Merv.
  16. ^ Dr. Ragheb Elsergany, Merv city.
  17. ^ Herrmann 2000
  18. ^ Herrmann 1999
  19. ^ Merv at UCL Institute of Archaeology.
  20. ^ State Historical and Cultural Park “Ancient Merv” at UNESCO.
  21. ^ "A. Feuerbach, 'Crucible Damascus Steel: a Fascination for Almost 2,000 Years' JOM Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society 58 (5), 48–50". Retrieved 7 October 2014.
  22. ^ Donald B. Wagner (continuing from Joseph Needham), Science and Civilisation in China: 5. Chemistry and Chemical Technology: part 11 Ferrous Metallurgy (Cambridge University Press 2008), 265 357.
Sources

Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links

Look up sandbox in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Merv.
Preceded by Capital of
Seljuq Empire (Persia)

(Eastern capital)
1118–1153 		Succeeded by
Gurganj


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