Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn | |
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Rostov State University | |
Notable awards | (2008)
Order of St. Andrew (refused the award) |
Spouses | Natalia Alekseyevna Reshetovskaya
(m. 1940; div. 1952)
(m. 1957; div. 1972)Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova
(m. 1973) |
Children |
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Signature | |
Website | |
solzhenitsyn |
Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn
Solzhenitsyn was born into a family that defied the
As a result of the Khrushchev Thaw, Solzhenitsyn was released and exonerated. He pursued writing novels about repression in the Soviet Union and his experiences. He published his first novel, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich in 1962, with approval from Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, which was an account of Stalinist repressions. Solzhenitsyn's last work to be published in the Soviet Union was Matryona's Place in 1963. Following the removal of Khrushchev from power, the Soviet authorities attempted to discourage Solzhenitsyn from continuing to write. He continued to work on further novels and their publication in other countries including Cancer Ward in 1966, In the First Circle in 1968, August 1914 in 1971, and The Gulag Archipelago in 1973, the publication of which outraged Soviet authorities. In 1974, Solzhenitsyn was stripped of his Soviet citizenship and flown to West Germany.[8] In 1976, he moved with his family to the United States, where he continued to write. In 1990, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, his citizenship was restored, and four years later he returned to Russia, where he remained until his death in 2008.
In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature "for the ethical force with which he has pursued the indispensable traditions of Russian literature",[9] The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenityn's flagship work, was a highly influential series that "amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state", and sold tens of millions of copies.[10]
Biography
Early years
Solzhenitsyn was born in Kislovodsk (now in Stavropol Krai, Russia). His father, Isaakiy Semyonovich Solzhenitsyn, was of Russian descent and his mother, Taisiya Zakharovna (née Shcherbak), was of Ukrainian descent.[11] Taisiya's father had risen from humble beginnings to become a wealthy landowner, acquiring a large estate in the Kuban region in the northern foothills of the Caucasus[12] and during World War I, Taisiya had gone to Moscow to study. While there she met and married Isaakiy, a young officer in the Imperial Russian Army of Cossack origin and fellow native of the Caucasus region. The family background of his parents is vividly brought to life in the opening chapters of August 1914, and in the later Red Wheel novels.[13]
In 1918, Taisiya became pregnant with Aleksandr. On 15 June, shortly after her pregnancy was confirmed, Isaakiy was killed in a hunting accident. Aleksandr was raised by his widowed mother and his aunt in lowly circumstances. His earliest years coincided with the Russian Civil War. By 1930 the family property had been turned into a collective farm. Later, Solzhenitsyn recalled that his mother had fought for survival and that they had to keep his father's background in the old Imperial Army a secret. His educated mother encouraged his literary and scientific learnings and raised him in the Russian Orthodox faith;[14][15] she died in 1944 having never remarried.[16]
As early as 1936, Solzhenitsyn began developing the characters and concepts for planned epic work on World War I and the Russian Revolution. This eventually led to the novel August 1914; some of the chapters he wrote then still survive.[citation needed] Solzhenitsyn studied mathematics and physics at Rostov State University. At the same time, he took correspondence courses from the Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature and History, which by this time were heavily ideological in scope. As he himself makes clear, he did not question the state ideology or the superiority of the Soviet Union until he was sentenced to time in the camps.[17]
World War II
During the war, Solzhenitsyn served as the commander of a sound-ranging battery in the Red Army,[18] was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated. He was awarded the Order of the Red Star on 8 July 1944 for sound-ranging two German artillery batteries and adjusting counterbattery fire onto them, resulting in their destruction.[19]
A series of writings published late in his life, including the early uncompleted novel Love the Revolution!, chronicle his wartime experience and growing doubts about the moral foundations of the Soviet regime.[20]
While serving as an artillery officer in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn witnessed war crimes against local German civilians by Soviet military personnel. Of the atrocities, Solzhenitsyn wrote: "You know very well that we've come to Germany to take our revenge" for Nazi atrocities committed in the Soviet Union.[21] The noncombatants and the elderly were robbed of their meager possessions and women and girls were gang-raped. A few years later, in the forced labor camp, he memorized a poem titled "Prussian Nights" about a woman raped to death in East Prussia. In this poem, which describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers mistakenly thought to be a German,[22] the first-person narrator comments on the events with sarcasm and refers to the responsibility of official Soviet writers like Ilya Ehrenburg.
In The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn wrote, "There is nothing that so assists the awakening of omniscience within us as insistent thoughts about one's own transgressions, errors, mistakes. After the difficult cycles of such ponderings over many years, whenever I mentioned the heartlessness of our highest-ranking bureaucrats, the cruelty of our executioners, I remember myself in my Captain's shoulder boards and the forward march of my battery through East Prussia, enshrouded in fire, and I say: 'So were we any better?'"[23]
Imprisonment
In February 1945, while serving in East Prussia, Solzhenitsyn was arrested by SMERSH for writing derogatory comments in private letters to a friend, Nikolai Vitkevich,[24] about the conduct of the war by Joseph Stalin, whom he called "Khozyain" ("the boss"), and "Balabos" (Yiddish rendering of Hebrew baal ha-bayit for "master of the house").[25] He also had talks with the same friend about the need for a new organization to replace the Soviet regime.[26][clarification needed]
Solzhenitsyn was accused of anti-Soviet propaganda under
The first part of Solzhenitsyn's sentence was served in several work camps; the "middle phase", as he later referred to it, was spent in a
In March 1953, after his sentence ended, Solzhenitsyn was sent to internal exile for life at
It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn developed the philosophical and religious positions of his later life, gradually becoming a philosophically minded Eastern Orthodox Christian as a result of his experience in prison and the camps.[35][36][37] He repented for some of his actions as a Red Army captain, and in prison compared himself to the perpetrators of the Gulag. His transformation is described at some length in the fourth part of The Gulag Archipelago ("The Soul and Barbed Wire"). The narrative poem The Trail (written without benefit of pen or paper in prison and camps between 1947 and 1952) and the 28 poems composed in prison, forced-labour camp, and exile also provide crucial material for understanding Solzhenitsyn's intellectual and spiritual odyssey during this period. These "early" works, largely unknown in the West, were published for the first time in Russian in 1999 and excerpted in English in 2006.[38][39]
Marriages and children
On 7 April 1940, while at the university, Solzhenitsyn married Natalia Alekseevna Reshetovskaya.[40] They had just over a year of married life before he went into the army, then to the Gulag. They divorced in 1952, a year before his release because the wives of Gulag prisoners faced the loss of work or residence permits. After the end of his internal exile, they remarried in 1957,[41] divorcing a second time in 1972. Reshetovskaya wrote negatively of Solzhenitsyn in her memoirs, accusing him of having affairs, and said of the relationship that "[Solzhenitsyn]'s despotism ... would crush my independence and would not permit my personality to develop."[42] In her 1974 memoir, Sanya: My Life with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, she wrote that she was "perplexed" that the West had accepted The Gulag Archipelago as "the solemn, ultimate truth", saying its significance had been "overestimated and wrongly appraised". Pointing out that the book's subtitle is "An Experiment in Literary Investigation", she said that her husband did not regard the work as "historical research, or scientific research". She contended that it was, rather, a collection of "camp folklore", containing "raw material" which her husband was planning to use in his future productions.
In 1973, Solzhenitsyn married his second wife, Natalia Dmitrievna Svetlova, a mathematician who had a son, Dmitri Turin, from a brief prior marriage.[43] He and Svetlova (born 1939) had three sons: Yermolai (1970), Ignat (1972), and Stepan (1973).[44] Dmitri Turin died on 18 March 1994, aged 32, at his home in New York City.[45]
After prison
After
In 1960, aged 42, Solzhenitsyn approached Aleksandr Tvardovsky, a poet and the chief editor of the Novy Mir magazine, with the manuscript of One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. It was published in edited form in 1962, with the explicit approval of Nikita Khrushchev, who defended it at the presidium of the Politburo hearing on whether to allow its publication, and added: "There's a Stalinist in each of you; there's even a Stalinist in me. We must root out this evil."[47] The book quickly sold out and became an instant hit.[48] In the 1960s, while Solzhenitsyn was publicly known to be writing Cancer Ward, he was simultaneously writing The Gulag Archipelago. During Khrushchev's tenure, One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was studied in schools in the Soviet Union, as were three more short works of Solzhenitsyn's, including his short story "Matryona's Home", published in 1963. These would be the last of his works published in the Soviet Union until 1990.
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich brought the Soviet system of prison labour to the attention of the West. It caused as much of a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did in the West—not only by its striking realism and candour, but also because it was the first major piece of Soviet literature since the 1920s on a politically charged theme, written by a non-party member, indeed a man who had been to Siberia for "libelous speech" about the leaders, and yet its publication had been officially permitted. In this sense, the publication of Solzhenitsyn's story was an almost unheard of instance of free, unrestrained discussion of politics through literature. However, after Khrushchev had been ousted from power in 1964, the time for such raw, exposing works came to an end.[48]
Later years in the Soviet Union
Every time when we speak about Solzhenitsyn as the enemy of the Soviet regime, this just happens to coincide with some important [international] events and we postpone the decision.
— Andrei Kirilenko, a Politburo member
Solzhenitsyn made an unsuccessful attempt, with the help of Tvardovsky, to have his novel Cancer Ward legally published in the Soviet Union. This required the approval of the
After Khrushchev's removal in 1964, the cultural climate again became more repressive. Publishing of Solzhenitsyn's work quickly stopped; as a writer, he became a
After the KGB had confiscated Solzhenitsyn's materials in Moscow, in the years 1965 to 1967, the preparatory drafts of
In 1969, Solzhenitsyn was expelled from the Union of Writers. In 1970, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. He could not receive the prize personally in Stockholm at that time, since he was afraid he would not be let back into the Soviet Union. Instead, it was suggested he should receive the prize in a special ceremony at the Swedish embassy in Moscow. The Swedish government refused to accept this solution because such a ceremony and the ensuing media coverage might upset the Soviet Union and damage Swedish-Soviet relations. Instead, Solzhenitsyn received his prize at the 1974 ceremony after he had been expelled from the Soviet Union. In 1973, another manuscript written by Solzhenitsyn was confiscated by the KGB after his friend Elizaveta Voronyanskaya was questioned non-stop for five days until she revealed its location, according to a statement by Solzhenitsyn to Western reporters on September 6, 1973. According to Solzhenitsyn, "When she returned home, she hanged herself."[52]
The Gulag Archipelago was composed from 1958 to 1967, and has sold over thirty million copies in thirty-five languages. It was a three-volume, seven-part work on the Soviet prison camp system, which drew from Solzhenitsyn's experiences and the testimony of 256
On 8 August 1971, the KGB allegedly attempted to assassinate Solzhenitsyn using an unknown chemical agent (most likely ricin) with an experimental gel-based delivery method.[58][59] The attempt left him seriously ill, but he survived.[60][61]
Although The Gulag Archipelago was not published in the Soviet Union, it was extensively criticized by the Party-controlled Soviet press. An editorial in Pravda on 14 January 1974 accused Solzhenitsyn of supporting "Hitlerites" and making "excuses for the crimes of the Vlasovites and Bandera gangs." According to the editorial, Solzhenitsyn was "choking with pathological hatred for the country where he was born and grew up, for the socialist system, and for Soviet people."[62]
During this period, he was sheltered by the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich, who suffered considerably for his support of Solzhenitsyn and was eventually forced into exile himself.[63]
Expulsion from the Soviet Union
In a discussion of its options in dealing with Solzhenitsyn, the members of the Politburo considered his arrest and imprisonment and his expulsion to a capitalist country willing to take him.[64] Guided by KGB chief Yuri Andropov, and following a statement from West German Chancellor Willy Brandt that Solzhenitsyn could live and work freely in West Germany, it was decided to deport the writer directly to that country.[65]
In the West
On 12 February 1974, Solzhenitsyn was arrested and deported the next day from the Soviet Union to
In West Germany, Solzhenitsyn lived in Heinrich Böll's house in Langenbroich . He then moved to Zürich, Switzerland before Stanford University invited him to stay in the United States to "facilitate your work, and to accommodate you and your family". He stayed at the Hoover Tower, part of the Hoover Institution, before moving to Cavendish, Vermont, in 1976. He was given an honorary literary degree from Harvard University in 1978 and on 8 June 1978 he gave a commencement address, condemning, among other things, the press, the lack of spirituality and traditional values, and the anthropocentrism of Western culture.[67] Solzhenitsyn also received an honorary degree from the College of the Holy Cross in 1984.
On 19 September 1974,
The KGB also sponsored a series of hostile books about Solzhenitsyn, most notably a "memoir published under the name of his first wife, Natalia Reshetovskaya, but probably mostly composed by Service A", according to historian Christopher Andrew.[68] Andropov also gave an order to create "an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion between Pauk[c] and the people around him" by feeding him rumors that the people around him were KGB agents, and deceiving him at every opportunity. Among other things, he continually received envelopes with photographs of car crashes, brain surgery and other disturbing imagery. After the KGB harassment in Zürich, Solzhenitsyn settled in Cavendish, Vermont, reduced communications with others. His influence and moral authority for the West diminished as he became increasingly isolated and critical of Western individualism. KGB and CPSU experts finally concluded that he alienated American listeners by his "reactionary views and intransigent criticism of the US way of life", so no further active measures would be required.[68]
Over the next 17 years, Solzhenitsyn worked on his dramatized history of the
Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in Western conservative circles (e.g. Ford administration staffers
Solzhenitsyn also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant pop culture of the modern West, including television and much of popular music: "...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer, and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits... by TV stupor and by intolerable music." Despite his criticism of the "weakness" of the West, Solzhenitsyn always made clear that he admired the political liberty which was one of the enduring strengths of Western democratic societies. In a major speech delivered to the International Academy of Philosophy in Liechtenstein on 14 September 1993, Solzhenitsyn implored the West not to "lose sight of its own values, its historically unique stability of civic life under the rule of law—a hard-won stability which grants independence and space to every private citizen."[70]
In a series of writings, speeches, and interviews after his return to his native Russia in 1994, Solzhenitsyn spoke about his admiration for the local self-government he had witnessed first hand in Switzerland and New England.[71][72] He "praised 'the sensible and sure process of grassroots democracy, in which the local population solves most of its problems on its own, not waiting for the decisions of higher authorities.'"[73] Solzhenitsyn's patriotism was inward-looking. He called for Russia to "renounce all mad fantasies of foreign conquest and begin the peaceful long, long long period of recuperation," as he put it in a 1979 BBC interview with Latvian-born BBC journalist Janis Sapiets.[74]
Return to Russia
In 1990, his Soviet citizenship was restored, and, in 1994, he returned to Russia with his wife, Natalia, who had become a United States citizen. Their sons stayed behind in the United States (later, his eldest son Yermolai returned to Russia). From then until his death, he lived with his wife in a
Once back in Russia, Solzhenitsyn hosted a television talk show program.[78] Its eventual format was Solzhenitsyn delivering a 15-minute monologue twice a month; it was discontinued in 1995.[79] Solzhenitsyn became a supporter of Vladimir Putin, who said he shared Solzhenitsyn's critical view towards the Russian Revolution.[80]
All of Solzhenitsyn's sons became U.S. citizens.[81] One, Ignat, is a pianist and conductor.[82] Another Solzhenitsyn son, Yermolai, works for the Moscow office of McKinsey & Company, a management consultancy firm, where he is a senior partner.[83]
Death
Solzhenitsyn died of heart failure near Moscow on 3 August 2008, at the age of 89.[66][84] A burial service was held at Donskoy Monastery, Moscow, on 6 August 2008.[citation needed][85] He was buried the same day in the monastery, in a spot he had chosen.[86] Russian and world leaders paid tribute to Solzhenitsyn following his death.[citation needed][87]
Views on history and politics
On Christianity, Tsarism, and Russian nationalism
This article is part of a series on |
Conservatism in Russia |
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According to William Harrison, Solzhenitsyn was an "arch-
Solzhenitsyn also repeatedly denounced Tsar
Solzhenitsyn also argued that the Dechristianization of Russian culture, which he considered most responsible for the
Expanding upon this theme, Solzhenitsyn once declared, "Over a half century ago, while I was still a child, I recall hearing a number of old people offer the following explanation for the great disasters that had befallen Russia: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened. Since then I have spent well-nigh 50 years working on the history of our revolution; in the process I have read hundreds of books, collected hundreds of personal testimonies, and have already contributed eight volumes of my own toward the effort of clearing away the rubble left by that upheaval. But if I were asked today to formulate as concisely as possible the main cause of the ruinous revolution that swallowed up some 60 million of our people, I could not put it more accurately than to repeat: 'Men have forgotten God; that's why all this has happened.'"[90]
In an interview with Joseph Pearce, however, Solzhenitsyn commented, "[The Old Believers were] treated amazingly unjustly because some very insignificant, trifling differences in ritual which were promoted with poor judgment and without much sound basis. Because of these small differences, they were persecuted in very many cruel ways, they were suppressed, they were exiled. From the perspective of historical justice, I sympathise with them and I am on their side, but this in no way ties in with what I have just said about the fact that religion in order to keep up with mankind must adapt its forms toward modern culture. In other words, do I agree with the Old Believers that religion should freeze and not move at all? Not at all!"[91]
When asked by Pearce for his opinions about the division within the
Surprised to hear Solzhenitsyn, "so often perceived as an arch-traditionalist, apparently coming down on the side of the reformers", Pearce then asked Solzhenitsyn what he thought of the division caused within the Anglican Communion by the decision to ordain female priests.[93]
Solzhenitsyn replied, "Certainly there are many firm boundaries that should not be changed. When I speak of some sort of correlation between the cultural norms of the present, it is really only a small part of the whole thing." Solzhenitsyn then added, "Certainly, I do not believe that women priests is the way to go!"[94]
On Russia and the Jews
In his 1974 essay "Repentance and Self-Limitation in the Life of Nations", Solzhenitsyn urged "Russian Gentiles" and Jews alike to take moral responsibility for the "renegades" from both communities who enthusiastically embraced atheism and Marxism–Leninism and participated in the Red Terror and many other acts of torture and mass murder following the October Revolution. Solzhenitsyn argued that both Russian Gentiles and Jews should be prepared to treat the atrocities committed by Jewish and Gentile Bolsheviks as though they were the acts of their own family members, before their consciences and before God. Solzhenitsyn said that if we deny all responsibility for the crimes of our national kin, "the very concept of a people loses all meaning."[95]
In a review of Solzhenitsyn's novel August 1914 in
In 2001, Solzhenitsyn published a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (
Criticism of communism
Solzhenitsyn emphasized the significantly more oppressive character of the Soviet
Shortly before his return to Russia, Solzhenitsyn delivered a speech in
According to Solzhenitsyn, Russians were not the ruling nation in the Soviet Union. He believed that all the traditional culture of all ethnic groups were equally oppressed in favor of atheism and Marxist–Leninism. Traditional Russian culture was even more repressed than any other culture in the Soviet Union, since the regime was more afraid of peasant uprisings by ethnic Russians than among any other Soviet ethnic group. Therefore, Solzhenitsyn argued, moderate and non-colonialist Russian nationalism and the Russian Orthodox Church, once cleansed of Caesaropapism, should not be regarded as a threat to the civilization of the West but rather as its ally.[113]
Solzhenitsyn made a speaking tour after
In "Rebuilding Russia", an essay first published in 1990 in
On post-Soviet Russia
In some of his later political writings, such as Rebuilding Russia (1990) and Russia in Collapse (1998), Solzhenitsyn criticized the
In an interview with
Solzhenitsyn refused to accept Russia's highest honor, the Order of St. Andrew, in 1998. Solzhenitsyn later said: "In 1998, it was the country's low point, with people in misery; ... Yeltsin decreed I be honored the highest state order. I replied that I was unable to receive an award from a government that had led Russia into such dire straits."[121] In a 2003 interview with Joseph Pearce, Solzhenitsyn said: "We are exiting from communism in a most unfortunate and awkward way. It would have been difficult to design a path out of communism worse than the one that has been followed."[122]
In a 2007 interview with Der Spiegel, Solzhenitsyn expressed disappointment that the "conflation of 'Soviet' and 'Russian'", against which he spoke so often in the 1970s, had not passed away in the West, in the ex-socialist countries, or in the former Soviet republics. He commented, "The elder political generation in communist countries is not ready for repentance, while the new generation is only too happy to voice grievances and level accusations, with present-day Moscow [as] a convenient target. They behave as if they heroically liberated themselves and lead a new life now, while Moscow has remained communist. Nevertheless, I dare [to] hope that this unhealthy phase will soon be over, that all the peoples who have lived through communism will understand that communism is to blame for the bitter pages of their history."[121]
In 2008, Solzhenitsyn praised Putin, saying Russia was rediscovering what it meant to be Russian. Solzhenitsyn also praised the Russian president Dmitry Medvedev as a "nice young man" who was capable of taking on the challenges Russia was facing.[123]
Criticism of the West
Once in the United States, Solzhenitsyn sharply criticized the West.[124]
Solzhenitsyn criticized the Allies for not opening a new front against Nazi Germany in the west earlier in World War II. This resulted in Soviet domination and control of the nations of Eastern Europe. Solzhenitsyn claimed the Western democracies apparently cared little about how many died in the East, as long as they could end the war quickly and painlessly for themselves in the West.
Delivering the commencement address at
In a reference to the Communist governments in
He also accused the Western news media of left-wing bias, of violating the privacy of celebrities, and of filling up the "immortal souls" of their readers with celebrity gossip and other "vain talk". He also said that the West erred in thinking that the whole world should embrace this as model. While faulting Soviet society for rejecting basic human rights and the rule of law, he also critiqued the West for being too legalistic: "A society which is based on the letter of the law and never reaches any higher is taking very scarce advantage of the high level of human possibilities." Solzhenitsyn also argued that the West erred in "denying [Russian culture's] autonomous character and therefore never understood it".[67]
Solzhenitsyn criticized the 2003 invasion of Iraq and accused the United States of the "occupation" of Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq.[126]
Solzhenitsyn was critical of
On the Holodomor
Solzhenitsyn gave a speech to
Shortly before his death, Solzhenitsyn opined in an interview published 2 April 2008 in
Legacy
The Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center in Worcester, Massachusetts promotes the author and hosts the official English-language website dedicated to him.[130]
Television documentaries on Solzhenitsyn
In October 1983, French literary journalist Bernard Pivot made an hour-long television interview with Solzhenitsyn at his rural home in Vermont, US. Solzhenitsyn discussed his writing, the evolution of his language and style, his family and his outlook on the future—and stated his wish to return to Russia in his lifetime, not just to see his books eventually printed there.[131][132] Earlier the same year, Solzhenitsyn was interviewed on separate occasions by two British journalists, Bernard Levin and Malcolm Muggeridge.[131]
In 1998, Russian filmmaker Alexander Sokurov made a four-part television documentary, Besedy s Solzhenitsynym (The Dialogues with Solzhenitsyn). The documentary was shot in Solzhenitsyn's home depicting his everyday life and his reflections on Russian history and literature.[133]
In December 2009, the Russian channel
Published works and speeches
- Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr Isaevich. A Storm in the Mountains.
- ——— (1962). One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (novella).
- ——— (1963). An Incident at Krechetovka Station (novella).
- ——— (1963). Matryona's Place (novella).
- ——— (1963). For the Good of the Cause (novella).
- ——— (1968). The First Circle (novel). Henry Carlisle, Olga Carlisle(translators).
- ——— (1968). Cancer Ward (novel).
- ——— (1969). The Love-Girl and the Innocent (play). Also known as The Prisoner and the Camp Hooker or The Tenderfoot and the Tart.
- ——— (1970). "Laureate lecture" (delivered in writing and not actually given as a lecture). Nobel prize. Swedish academy. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
- ——— (1971). Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914, and the ineptitude of the military leadership. Other works, similarly titled, follow the story: see The Red Wheel(overall title).
- ——— (1973–1978). The Gulag Archipelago. Henry Carlisle, Olga Carlisle (tr.). (3 vols.), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a police state in the Soviet Union.
- ——— (1951). Prussian Nights (poetry) (published 1974)..
- ——— (10 December 1974), Nobel Banquet (speech), City Hall, Stockholm
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).[138] - ——— (1975). Letter to the Soviet Leaders. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0060803398.
- ——— (1975). The Oak and the Calf.
- ——— (1975). Solzhenitsyn: The Voice of Freedom (Translation of 2 speeches, the first given in Washington, D.C., on 30 June 1975, the second in New York City on 9 July 1975 to the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations.
- ——— (1976a). Lenin in Zürich.; separate publication of chapters on Vladimir Lenin, none of them published before this point, from The Red Wheel. The first of them was later incorporated into the 1984 edition of the expanded August 1914 (though it had been written at the same time as the original version of the novel)[139] and the rest in November 1916 and March 1917.
- ——— (1976b). Warning to the West (5 speeches; 3 to the Americans in 1975 and 2 to the British in 1976).
- ——— (8 June 1978). "Harvard Commencement Address". Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn Center → Articles, Essays, and Speeches. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
- ——— (1983). Pluralists (political pamphlet).
- ——— (1980). The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America.
- ——— (1983b). November 1916 (novel). The Red Wheel.
- ——— (1983c). Victory Celebration.
- ——— (1983d). Prisoners.
- ——— (10 May 1983). Godlessness, the First Step to the Gulag (address). London: Templeton Prize.
- ——— (1984). August 1914 (novel) (much-expanded ed.).
- ——— (1990). Rebuilding Russia.
- ——— (1990). March 1917.
- ——— (c. 1991). April 1917.
- ——— (1995). The Russian Question.
- ——— (1997). Invisible Allies. Basic Books. ]
- ——— (1998). Россия в обвале [Russia under Avalanche] (political pamphlet) (in Russian). Yahoo. Archived from the original (Geo cities) on 28 August 2009.
- ——— (2003). Two Hundred Years Together. on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response.[140][141]
- ——— (2011). Apricot Jam: and Other Stories. Kenneth Lantz, Stephan Solzhenitsyn (tr.). Berkeley, CA: Counterpoint.
See also
- Literature covering the Gulag system
- List of refugees
- Ivan Bunin
- Czesław Miłosz
- Đoàn Văn Toại
- Wei Jingsheng
- Yevgeny Zamyatin
Notes
- ^ In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Isayevich and the family name is Solzhenitsyn. His father's given name was Isaakiy, which would normally result in the patronymic Isaakievich; however, the forms Isaakovich and Isayevich both appeared in official documents, the latter becoming the accepted version. His first name is often romanized to Alexandr or Alexander.
- ^ UK: /ˌsɒlʒəˈnɪtsɪn/ SOL-zhə-NIT-sin,[2][3][4] US: /ˌsoʊl-, -ˈniːt-/ SOHL-, -NEET-;[3][4][5] Russian: Александр Исаевич Солженицын, IPA: [ɐlʲɪkˈsandr ɪˈsajɪvʲɪtɕ səlʐɨˈnʲitsɨn].
- ^ KGB gave Solzhenitsyn the code name Pauk, which means "spider" in Russian.
References
- ^ "Solzhenitsyn Flies Home, Vowing Moral Involvement ...". The New York Times. 27 May 1994. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
- ^ "Solzhenitsyn, Alexander". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 April 2022.
- ^ a b "Solzhenitsyn". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
- ^ a b "Solzhenitsyn, Alexander". Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Longman. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
- ^ "Solzhenitsyn". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 27 August 2019.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970". NobelPrize.org.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (4 August 2008). "Alexander Solzhenitsyn, 1918–2008". Slate Magazine.
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In 1973, still in the Soviet Union, he sent abroad his literary and polemical masterpiece, 'The Gulag Archipelago.' The nonfiction account exposed the enormous crimes that had led to the wholesale incarceration and slaughter of millions of innocent victims, demonstrating that its dimensions were on a par with the Holocaust. Solzhenitsyn's gesture amounted to a head-on challenge to the Soviet state, calling its very legitimacy into question and demanding revolutionary change.
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{{citation}}
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When Solzhenitsyn wrote and distributed his Gulag Archipelago it had enormous political significance and greatly increased popular understanding of part of the repression system. But this was a literary and political work; it never claimed to place the camps in a historical or social-scientific quantitative perspective, Solzhenitsyn cited a figure of 12–15 million in the camps. But this was a figure that he hurled at the authorities as a challenge for them to show that the scale of the camps was less than this.
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Sources
External videos | |
---|---|
Presentation by D. M. Thomas on Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in His Life. C-SPAN. 19 February 1998 |
- Ericson, Edward E. Jr.; Klimoff, Alexis (2008). The Soul and Barbed Wire: An Introduction to Solzhenitsyn. ISI books. ISBN 978-1-933859-57-6.
- Ericson, Edward E Jr; Mahoney, Daniel J, eds. (2009). The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005. ISI Books.
- Kriza, Elisa (2014) Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Cold War Icon, Gulag Author, Russian Nationalist? A Study of the Western Reception of his Literary Writings, Historical Interpretations, and Political Ideas. Stuttgart: Ibidem Press. ISBN 978-3-8382-0589-2
- Moody, Christopher (1973). Solzhenitsyn. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd. ISBN 978-0-05-002600-7.
- Scammell, Michael (1986). Solzhenitsyn: A Biography. London: Paladin. ISBN 978-0-586-08538-7.
- Thomas, D.M. (1998). Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Century in his Life. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-18036-2.
Further reading
Biographies
- Burg, David; Feifer, George (1972). Solzhenitsyn: A Biography. New York: Stein & Day.
- Glottser, Vladimir; Chukovskaia, Elena (1998). Слово пробивает себе дорогу: Сборник статей и документов об А. И. Солженицыне (Slovo probivaet sebe dorogu: Sbornik statei i dokumentov ob A. I. Solzhenitsyne), 1962–1974 [The word finds its way: Collection of articles and documents on AI Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Moscow: Russkii put'.
- Korotkov, AV; Melchin, SA; Stepanov, AS (1994). Кремлевский самосуд: Секретные документы Политбюро о писателе А. Солженицыне (Kremlevskii samosud: Sekretnye dokumenty Politburo o pisatele A. Solzhenitsyne) [Kremlin lynching: Secret documents of the Politburo of the writer Alexander Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Moscow: Rodina.
- ———; Melchin, SA; Stepanov, AS (1995). Scammell, Michael (ed.). The Solzhenitsyn Files. Catherine A. Fitzpatrick (tr.). Chicago: Edition q.
- ISBN 9780253201645.
- Ledovskikh, Nikolai (2003). Возвращение в Матренин дом, или Один день' Александра Исаевича (Vozvrashchenie v Matrenin dom, ili Odin den' Aleksandra Isaevicha) [Return to Matrenin house, or One Day' Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Riazan': Poverennyi.
- Ostrovsky Alexander (2004). Солженицын: прощание с мифом (Solzhenitsyn: Farewell to the myth) – Moscow: «Yauza», Presscom. ISBN 978-5-98083-023-6
- Pearce, Joseph (2001). Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.
- Reshetovskaia, Natal'ia Alekseevna (1975). В споре со временем (V spore so vremenem) [In a dispute over time] (in Russian). Moscow: Agentsvo pechati Novosti.
- ——— (1975). Sanya: My Husband Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Elena Ivanoff transl. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
Reference works
- Askol'dov, Sergei Alekseevich; Struve, Petr Berngardovich; et al. (1918). Из глубины: Сборник статей о русской революции (Iz glubiny: Sbornik statei o russkoi revoliutsii) [From the depths: Collection of articles on the Russian Revolution] (in Russian). Moscow: Russkaia mysl'.
- ———; Struve, Petr Berngardovich (1986). Woehrlin, William F (ed.). De Profundis [Out of the Depths]. Translated by William F. Woehrlin. Irvine, CA: C Schlacks Jr.
- Barker, Francis (1977). Solzhenitsyn: Politics and Form. New York: Holmes & Meier.
- Berdiaev, Nikolai A; Bulgakov, SN; Gershenzon, MO; et al. (1909). Вехи: Сборник статей о русской интеллигенции (Vekhi: Sbornik statei o russkoi intelligentsii) [Milestones: Collection of articles on the Russian intelligentsia] (in Russian). Moscow: Kushnerev.
- ———; Bulgakov, SN; Gershenzon, MO; et al. (1977). Shragin, Boris; Todd, Albert (eds.). Landmarks: A Collection of Essays on the Russian Intelligentsia. Marian Schwartz transl. New York: Karz Howard.
- Bloom, Harold, ed. (2001). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Modern Critical Views. Philadelphia: Chelsea House.
- Brown, Edward J (1982), "Solzhenitsyn and the Epic of the Camps", Russian Literature Since the Revolution, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, pp. 251–91.
- Daprà, Veronika (1991), AI Solzhenitsyn: The Political Writings, Università degli Studi di Venezia; Prof. Vittorio Strada, Dott. Julija Dobrovol'skaja.
- Ericson, Edward E jr (1980). Solzhenitsyn: The Moral Vision. Grand Rapids, ISBN 9780802835277.
- ——— (1993). Solzhenitsyn and the Modern World. Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway.
- Feuer, Kathryn, ed. (1976). Solzhenitsyn: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 9780138226275.
- Golubkov, MM (1999). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. Moscow: MGU.
- Klimoff, Alexis (1997). One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich: A Critical Companion. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
- Kodjak, Andrej (1978). Alexander Solzhenitsyn. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 9780805763201.
- Krasnov, Vladislav (1979). Solzhenitsyn and Dostoevsky: A Study in the Polyphonic Novel. Athens, ISBN 9780820304724.
- ISBN 9780394527840.
- Anatoly Livry, « Soljénitsyne et la République régicide », Les Lettres et Les Arts, Cahiers suisses de critique littéraire et artistiques, Association de la revue Les Lettres et les Arts, Suisse, Vicques, 2011, pp. 70–72. http://anatoly-livry.e-monsite.com/medias/files/soljenitsine-livry-1.pdf
- Lydon, Michael (2001), "Alexander Solzhenitsyn", Real Writing: Word Models of the Modern World, New York: Patrick Press, pp. 183–251.
- Mahoney, Daniel J (2001), Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Ascent From Ideology, Rowman & Littlefield.
- ——— (November–December 2002), "Solzhenitsyn on Russia's 'Jewish Question", Society, pp. 104–09.
- Mathewson, Rufus W jr (1975), "Solzhenitsyn", The Positive Hero in Russian Literature, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, pp. 279–340
- McCarthy, Mary (16 September 1972), "The Tolstoy Connection", Saturday Review, pp. 79–96
- "Special Solzhenitsyn issue", Modern Fiction Studies, vol. 23, Spring 1977.
- Nivat, Georges (1980). Soljénitsyne [Solzhenitsyn] (in French). Paris: Seuil.
- ——— (2009), Le phénomène Soljénitsyne [The Solzhenitsyn phenomenon] (in French), Fayard
- Nivat; Aucouturier, Michel, eds. (1971). Soljénitsyne [Solzhenitsyn] (in French). Paris: L'Herne.
- Panin, Dimitri (1976). The Notebooks of Sologdin. John Moore transl. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 9780151669950.
- Pogadaev, Victor A (October–December 2008), "Solzhenitsyn: Tanpa Karyanya Sejarah Abad 20 Tak Terbayangkan" [Solzhenitsyn: Without History of the 20th Century His work Unimaginable], Pentas (in Indonesian), vol. 3, no. 4, Kuala Lumpur, pp. 60–63.
- Pontuso, James F (1990). Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
- ——— (2004), Assault on Ideology: Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's Political Thought (2nd ed.), Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, ISBN 978-0-7391-0594-8.
- Porter, Robert (1997). Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. London: Bristol Classical.
- Remnick, David (14 February 1994). "The Exile Returns". The New Yorker. Vol. 69, no. 50. pp. 64–83.
- Rothberg, Abraham (1971). Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: The Major Novels. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. ISBN 9780801406683.
- Shneerson, Mariia (1984). Александр Солженицын: Очерки творчества (Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: Ocherki tvorchestva) [Alexander Solzhenitsyn: Essays on Art] (in Russian). Frankfurt & Moscow: Posev.
- Shturman, Dora (1988). Городу и миру: О публицистике АИ Солженицына (Gorodu i miru: O publitsistike AI Solzhenitsyna) [Urbi et Orbi: About journalism. AI Solzhenitsyn] (in Russian). Paris & New York: Tret'ia volna.
- Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr; et al. (1980). Berman, Ronald (ed.). Solzhenitsyn at Harvard: The Address, Twelve Early Responses, and Six Later Reflections. Washington, DC: Ethics & Public Policy Center.
- ——— (1975). Dunlop, John B; Haugh, Richard; Klimoff, Alexis (eds.). Critical Essays and Documentary Materials. New York & London: Collier Macmillan.
- ——— (1985). Dunlop, John B; Haugh, Richard; Nicholson, Michael (eds.). In Exile: Critical Essays and Documentary Materials. Stanford: Hoover Institution. ISBN 9780817980511.
- Toker, Leona (2000), "The Gulag Archipelago and The Gulag Fiction of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn", Return from the Archipelago: Narrative of Gulag Survivors, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, pp. 101–21, 188–209
- Tolczyk, Dariusz (1999), "A Sliver in the Throat of Power", See No Evil: Literary Cover-Ups and Discoveries of the Soviet Camp Experience, New Haven, CT & London: Yale University Press, pp. 253–310
- Transactions, vol. 29, The Association of Russian-American Scholars in the USA, 1998.
- Urmanov, AV (2003). Творчество Александра Солженицына: Учебное пособие (Tvorchestvo Aleksandra Solzhenitsyna: Uchebnoe posobie) [Creativity Alexander Solzhenitsyn: A Tutorial] (in Russian). Moscow: Flinta/Nauka.
- Urmanov, AV, ed. (2003), Один деньь Ивана Денисовича АИ Солженицына. Художественный мир. Поэтика. Культурный контекст (Odin den' Ivana Denisovicha. AI Solzhenitsyna: Khudozhestvennyy mir. Poetika. Kul'turnyy kontekst) [One den of Ivan Denisovich. AI Solzhenitsyn: Art world. Poetics. Cultural context] (in Russian), Blagoveshchensk: BGPU.
- Tretyakov, Vitaly (2 May 2006). "Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: 'Saving the Nation Is the Utmost Priority for the State'". The Moscow News. Archived from the original on 27 May 2006.
External links
- (in Russian) Official website
- The Nobel Prize in Literature 1970
- Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn on Nobelprize.org
- Negative Analysis of Alexander Solzhenitsyn by the Stalin Society
- Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I (1978), A World Split Apart (commencement address to the graduating class), Harvard University: OrthodoxyToday.org, archived from the original on 7 August 2008, retrieved 9 August 2014.
- Vermont Recluse Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
- Der Spiegel interviews Alexander Solzhenitsyn: 'I Am Not Afraid of Death', 23 July 2007
- As delivered text and video of Harvard Commencement Address at AmericanRhetoric.com
- The Solzhenitsyn Reader: New and Essential Writings, 1947–2005
- Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn at the Internet Book List