Europeans in Medieval China

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1342 tomb of Katarina Vilioni, member of an Italian trading family, in Yangzhou.

Given textual and archaeological evidence, it is thought that thousands of Europeans lived in

Christian missionary work, or lived in China. This occurred primarily during the second half of the 13th century and the first half of the 14th century, coinciding with the rule of the Mongol Empire, which ruled over a large part of Eurasia and connected Europe with their Chinese dominion of the Yuan dynasty.[2] Whereas the Byzantine Empire centered in Greece and Anatolia maintained rare incidences of correspondence with the Tang, Song and Ming dynasties of China, the Holy See sent several missionaries and embassies to the early Mongol Empire as well as to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing), the capital of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. These contacts with the West were preceded by rare interactions between the Han dynasty and Hellenistic Greeks and Romans
.

Mainly located in places such as the Yuan capital of

missionaries arrived on Ming China's southern shores in the 1510s, during the Age of Discovery
.

The Italian merchant

Benedykt Polak, and William of Rubruck traveled instead to Outer Mongolia. The Turkic Chinese Nestorian Christian Rabban Bar Sauma
was the first diplomat from China to reach the royal courts of Christendom in the West.

Background

Old Uyghur language), Chinese characters (used to write Chinese), and the Tangut script (used to write the Tangut language)[4][5]
Further information: Chronology of European exploration of Asia
Uyghur rule (9th–13th century).[9]

Hellenistic Greeks

Further information:
China-Greece relations

Before the 13th century AD, instances of Europeans going to China or of Chinese going to Europe were very rare.

Hellenistic sculptural art,[25] a hypothesis that has caused some controversy.[26]

At the cemetery in Sampul (Shanpula; 山普拉), ~14 km from

Greek ethnic background.[33][34][35][36]

Ancient Romans

Main article: Sino-Roman relations

Beginning in the age of

Protector General of the Western Regions, explored Central Asia and in 97 AD dispatched his envoys Gan Ying to Daqin (i.e. the Roman Empire).[38][39] Gan was dissuaded by Parthian authorities from venturing further than the "west coast" (possibly the Eastern Mediterranean) although he wrote a detailed report about the Roman Empire, its cities, postal network and consular system of government, and presented this to the Han court.[40][41]

Subsequently, there was a series of

the maritime south and presented gifts to the court of Emperor Huan of Han (r. 146–168 AD), claiming they represented Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Andun 安敦, r. 161–180 AD).[42][43] There is speculation that they were Roman merchants instead of official diplomats.[42]

At the very least, archaeological evidence supports the claim in the

Kattigara discovered by a Greek sailor named Alexander, a site Ferdinand von Richthofen assumed was Chinese-controlled Hanoi,[48] but given the archaeological evidence could have been Oc Eo.[46][49] Roman coins have been found in China, but far fewer than in India.[50]

It is possible that a group of Greek acrobatic performers, who claimed to be from a place "

Burma to Emperor An of Han in 120 AD.[51] It is known that in both the Parthian Empire and Kushan Empire of Asia, ethnic Greeks continued to be employed as entertainers such as musicians and athletes who engaged in athletic competitions.[52][53]

Byzantine Empire

Further information:
Byzantine-Mongol alliance, and Tang dynasty
Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) giving an audience to Gar Tongtsen Yulsung, ambassador of the Tibetan Empire, in a painting by Yan Liben (600–673)

two warring nations.[56]

The Chinese

Zhu fan zhi.[58]

Merchants

Left image: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo leaving Constantinople for the East, in 1259, from a 15th-century illuminated manuscript version of The Travels of Marco Polo
Right image: A
incense burner, Yuan dynasty
Further information: Niccolò and Maffeo Polo, Marco Polo, and The Travels of Marco Polo
Christian Cross from the Cross Temple near Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), Yuan dynasty

According to the 9th-century

Book of Roads and Kingdoms by ibn Khordadbeh,[59] China was a destination for Radhanite Jews buying boys, female slaves and eunuchs from Europe. During the subsequent Song period there was also a community of Kaifeng Jews in China.[60] The Spaniard, Benjamin of Tudela (from Navarre) was a 12th-century Jewish traveler whose Travels of Benjamin recorded vivid descriptions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, preceding those of Marco Polo
by a hundred years.

Polo, a 13th-century merchant from the

Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in his Jami' al-tawarikh.[64]

Marco Polo accurately described geographical features of China such as

the Grand Canal.[65] His detailed and accurate descriptions of salt production confirm that he had actually been in China.[66] Marco described salt wells and hills where salt could be mined, probably in Yunnan, and reported that in the mountains "these rascals ... have none of the Great Khan's paper money, but use salt instead ... They have salt which they boil and set in a mold ..."[67] Polo also remarked how the Chinese burned paper effigies shaped as male and female servants, camels, horses, suits of clothing and armor while cremating the dead during funerary rites.[68]

When visiting

Persian monk named Alopen (Chinese: Āluósī; 阿羅本; 阿羅斯[citation needed]) came to the capital Chang'an in 653 to proselytize, as described in a dual Chinese and Syriac language inscription from Chang'an (modern Xi'an) dated to the year 781.[70]

Others were soon to follow. The Italian

John Mandeville, a mid-14th-century author and alleged Englishman from St Albans, claimed to have lived in China and even served at the Mongol khan's court.[74] However, certain parts of his accounts are considered dubious by modern scholars, with some conjecturing that he simply concocted his stories by using written accounts of China penned by other authors such as Odoric of Pordenone.[75]

John de Carpini
, 1245
Seal of Güyük Khan using the classical Mongolian script, as found in a letter sent to the Roman Pope Innocent IV in 1246.
Letter from Arghun, Khan of the Mongol Ilkhanate, to Pope Nicholas IV, 1290.
Seal of the Mongol ruler Ghazan in a 1302 letter to Pope Boniface VIII, with an inscription in Chinese seal script

In

an ambassador was dispatched to China with one superb horse, which was later the object of Chinese poems and paintings.[76]

Other Venetians lived in China, including one who brought a letter to the West from John of Montecorvino in 1305. In 1339 a Venetian named Giovanni Loredano is recorded to have returned to Venice from China. A tombstone was also discovered in Yangzhou, in the name of Catherine de Villioni, daughter of Dominici, who died there in 1342.[76]

In about 1340, Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, a merchant from Florence, compiled a guide about trade in China[77] based on records from travellers who visited China (Pegolotti himself never went to China).[78] The guide notes the size of Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) and how merchants could exchange silver for Chinese paper money that could be used to buy luxury items such as silk.[79]

The

astronomy that convinced Kublai Khan to offer him a position as the director of medical and astronomical boards. Kublai Khan eventually honored him with the title of Prince of Fu lin (Chinese: 拂菻王; Fú lǐn wáng). His biography in the History of Yuan lists his children by their Chinese names, which are similar to the Christian names Elias (Ye-li-ah), Luke (Lu-ko), and Antony (An-tun), with a daughter named A-na-si-sz.[80]

Europeans of the 13th and 14th century called Northern China by place-names similar to "Cathay", while Southern China was called "Mangi" or "Manzi".[81]

Missionaries and diplomats

Main articles: Religion in the Mongol Empire, Catholic Church in China, Jesuit missions in China, and Protestant missions in China
Further information:
Tengriism, Islam during the Yuan dynasty, and Islam in Mongolia

The Italian explorer and archbishop

Benedykt Polak were the first papal envoys to reach Karakorum after being sent there by Pope Innocent IV in 1245.[82][83] The "Historia Mongalorum" was later written by Pian del Carpini, documenting his travels and a cursory history of the Mongols.[84][85] Catholic missionaries soon established a considerable presence in China, due to the religious tolerance of the Mongols, due in no small part to the Khan's own great tolerance and open encouragement of the development of trade and intellectual avocation. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon commented on the Mongols' religious tolerance and went as far as to compare the "religious laws" of Genghis Khan to equivalent ideas propounded by the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.[86]

Emil River (on the Kazakh-Chinese border), bearing gifts and representing their sovereign Louis IX of France, who desired a military alliance.[88] Empress Qaimish viewed the gifts as tributary offerings and, in addition to gifts given in return, entrusted to Louis' diplomats, she sent the French monarch a letter demanding his submission as a vassal.[89]

The Franciscan missionary

war horse as a tributary gift.[93]

On 15 March 1314 the killings of Francis de Petriolo, Monaldo of Ancona, and Anthony of Milan occurred in China.[98] This was followed by the Killing of James, Quanzhou's bishop, in 1362. His predecessors were Andrew, Peregrinus, and Gerard.[99]

The Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone visited China.[97] Friars in Hangzhou and Zhangzhou were visited by Odorico.[100] His total travels took place from 1304 to 1330,[101] although he first returned to Europe in 1330.[82] China's Franciscans were mentioned in his writings, the Itinerarium.[102][103]

In 1333, John de Montecorvino was officially replaced by Nicolaus de Bentra, who was chosen by

Northern Yuan dynasty) sent an embassy including Genoese Italians to Pope Benedict XII in 1336, requesting a new archbishop.[106] The pope answered by sending legates and ecclesiastical leaders to Khanbaliq in 1342, which included Giovanni de Marignolli.[82][106]

In 1370, following the ousting of the Mongols from China and the establishment of the Chinese Ming dynasty, the Pope sent a new mission to China, comprising the Parisian theologian Guillaume du Pré as the new archbishop and 50 Franciscans. However, this mission disappeared, apparently eliminated.[107] The Ming Hongwu Emperor sent a diplomatic letter to the Byzantine Empire,[108] through a European in China named Nieh-ku-lun.[109] John V Palaiologos was the Byzantine Emperor at the time the message was sent by Hongwu,[110] with the proclamatory letter informing him about the establishment of the new Ming dynasty.[45] The message was sent to the Byzantine ruler in September 1371 when Hongwu met with the merchant Nieh-ku-lun (捏古倫) from Fu lin (Byzantium).[111][112] The Khanbaliq bishop Nicolaus de Bentra is speculated to be the same person as Nieh-ku-lun, for instance, by Emil Bretschneider in 1888.[113][114] More recently, Edward N. Luttwak (2009) also mused that Nicolaus de Bentra and this alleged Byzantine merchant Nieh-ku-lin were one and the same.[115]

Friar William of Parto, Cosmas, and John de' Marignolli were among the Catholic clerics in China.[116] The Oriens Christianus by Michel Le Quien (1661–1733) recorded the names of Khanbaliq's previous bishops and archbishops.[117][118]

Captives

For his travels from 1253 to 1255, the Franciscan friar

Mongol invasions of Europe. He also mentions Hungarians and Russians.[1]

Spread of Chinese gunpowder

Main article: History of gunpowder
Further information:
History of artillery

Jin-Song Wars,[125][126][127] whereas the oldest surviving bronze hand cannon dates to 1288 during the Yuan period.[128][129] Following the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281), a Japanese scroll painting depicted explosive bombs used by Yuan-dynasty forces against their samurai.[130] By 1326 the earliest artistic depiction of a gun was made in Europe by Walter de Milemete.[131] Petrarch wrote in 1350 that cannons were then a common sight on the European battlefield.[132]

Diplomatic missions to Europe

French National Archives
.
Main articles:
Byzantine–Mongol alliance, and Chinese exploration

Patriarch of the Eastern Church and advised Arghun Khan to have Bar Sauma lead the diplomatic mission to Europe.[133][140]

Bar Sauma, who spoke

Chinese Confucian teaching.[146] Although he managed to secure an audience with these leaders of Christendom and exchanged letters from them to Arghun Khan, none of these Christian monarchs were fully committed to an alliance with the latter.[133]

Renewed contacts during the Ming dynasty

Jesuit Matteo Ricci (left) and the Chinese mathematician Xu Guangqi (right) published the Chinese edition of Euclid's Elements
(幾何原本) in 1607.
Further information:
Jesuit China missions, History of the Ming dynasty, and Chinese Rites controversy

In 1368 the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty collapsed amid widespread internal revolt during the

Juan Gonzáles de Mendoza, and Antonio de Morga all impacted the Western view and understanding of China at the time, offering intricate details about its society and items of trade.[152][153]

The Italian Jesuit missionary

treasure voyages of the 15th-century admiral Zheng He, the Ming dynasty had largely pursued policies of isolationism that kept it from seeking far-flung diplomatic contacts.[148][156]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Roux (1993), p. 465
  2. early modern era
    began.
  3. ISBN 978-0-8160-4671-3
    .
  4. ISBN 978-0-300-10065-5
  5. ^ Murata, Jirō (村田治郎) (1957), Chü-Yung-Kuan: The Buddhist Arch of the Fourteenth Century A.D. at the Pass of the Great Wall Northwest of Peking, Kyoto University Faculty of Engineering, p. 134.
  6. ^ a b c Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 15–16, ISSN 2157-9687.
  7. ^ von Le Coq, Albert. (1913). Chotscho: Facsimile-Wiedergaben der Wichtigeren Funde der Ersten Königlich Preussischen Expedition nach Turfan in Ost-Turkistan. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer (Ernst Vohsen), im Auftrage der Gernalverwaltung der Königlichen Museen aus Mitteln des Baessler-Institutes, Tafel 19. (Accessed 3 September 2016).
  8. ISSN 2191-6411. See also endnote #32
    . (Accessed 3 September 2016.)
  9. ISBN 978-0-19-993921-3
    .
  10. ^ W.W. Tarn (1966), The Greeks in Bactria and India, reprint edition, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 109–111.
  11. ^ For Strabo's depiction of this event, see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 8, ISSN 2157-9687.
  12. ISBN 978-0-19-515931-8
    .
  13. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1
    .
  14. ^ Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 13–14, 21–22.
  15. ^ Bailey, H.W. (1996) "Khotanese Saka Literature", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2 (reprint edition), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 1230–1231.
  16. ^
    ISBN 978-90-04-15830-6
    .
  17. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6
    .
  18. ISBN 978-1-900838-03-0
    .
  19. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8
    .
  20. ISBN 978-0-472-11534-1
    .
  21. ISBN 978-0-521-77064-4
    .
  22. ^ Yang, Juping. “Hellenistic Information in China.” CHS Research Bulletin 2, no. 2 (2014). http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hlnc.essay:YangJ.Hellenistic_Information_in_China.2014
  23. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original
    on 2019-04-27. Retrieved 2019-06-09.
  24. ISBN 9781316335567. Retrieved 2019-06-09. {{cite book}}: |website= ignored (help
    )
  25. ^ "Western contact with China began long before Marco Polo, experts say". BBC News. 12 October 2016. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
  26. ^ "Controversy about the-theory-that-greek-art-inspired-chinas-terracotta-army". The Conversation. 18 November 2016. Retrieved 2019-08-18.
  27. ^ a b Chengzhi Xie et al., "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of ancient Sampula population in Xinjiang," in Progress in Natural Science, vol. 17, (August 2007), pp 927–33.
  28. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27, ISSN 2157-9687.
  29. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, ISSN 2157-9687.
  30. ^ Livius.org. "Roxane." Articles on Ancient History. Page last modified 17 August 2015. Retrieved on 8 September 2016.
  31. ISBN 978-1-907200-02-1
    .
  32. ^ For another publication calling her "Sogdian", see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 4, ISSN 2157-9687.
  33. ISBN 90-04-08612-9
    .
  34. ^ Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61.
  35. ISBN 0-89356-313-7
    .
  36. ^ Lucas Christopoulos writes the following: "The kings (or soldiers) of the Sampul cemetery came from various origins, composing as they did a homogenous army made of Hellenized Persians, western Scythians, or Sacae Iranians from their mother's side, just as were most of the second generation of Greeks colonists living in the Seleucid Empire. Most of the soldiers of Alexander the Great who stayed in Persia, India and central Asia had married local women, thus their leading generals were mostly Greeks from their father's side or had Greco-Macedonian grandfathers. Antiochos had a Persian mother, and all the later Indo-Greeks or Greco-Bactrians were revered in the population as locals, as they used both Greek and Bactrian scripts on their coins and worshipped the local gods. The DNA testing of the Sampul cemetery shows that the occupants had paternal origins in the eastern part of the Mediterranean"; see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, ISSN 2157-9687.
  37. ^ W.W. Tarn (1966), The Greeks in Bactria and India, reprint edition, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 110–111.
  38. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8
    .
  39. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0
    .
  40. ISBN 978-0-520-24340-8
    .
  41. ISBN 978-0-07-141279-7
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  42. ^
    ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0
    .
  43. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8
    .
  44. ^ Yu, Huan (September 2004). John E. Hill (ed.). "The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265, Quoted in zhuan 30 of the Sanguozhi, Published in 429 CE". Depts.washington.edu. Translated by John E. Hill. Archived from the original on 2005-03-15. Retrieved 2016-09-17.
  45. ^ a b c d e f Hirth, Friedrich (2000) [1885]. Jerome S. Arkenberg (ed.). "East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. - 1643 C.E." Fordham.edu. Fordham University. Retrieved 2016-09-14.
  46. ^
    ISBN 0-415-24219-3
    , pp 29–30.
  47. ISBN 2-503-52178-9
    , p. 83.
  48. ^ Ferdinand von Richthofen, China, Berlin, 1877, Vol.I, pp. 504–510; cited in Richard Hennig, Terrae incognitae : eine Zusammenstellung und kritische Bewertung der wichtigsten vorcolumbischen Entdeckungsreisen an Hand der daruber vorliegenden Originalberichte, Band I, Altertum bis Ptolemäus, Leiden, Brill, 1944, pp.387, 410–411; cited in Zürcher (2002), pp. 30–31.
  49. ISBN 1-74114-893-6
    , pp 24–25.
  50. ISBN 978-0-415-72078-6
    , p. 154.
  51. Houhanshu (後漢書) (Later Han dynasty annals), chap. 86, "Traditions of the Southern Savages; The South-Western Tribes" (Nanman, Xinanyi zhuan 南蠻西南夷列傳). Liezhuan 76. (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju 中華書局, 1962–1999), p. 1926. "永初元年," 徼外僬僥種夷陸類等三千餘口舉種内附，献象牙､水牛､封牛。 永寧元年，撣國王雍由調复遣使者詣闕朝賀，献樂及幻人，能變化吐火，自支解，易牛馬頭。又善跳丸， 數乃至千。自言我海西人。海西即大秦也，撣國西南通大秦。明年元會，安帝作變於庭，封雍由調爲漢大 都尉，赐印綬､金銀､彩繒各有差也."
    A translation of this passage into English, in addition to an explanation of how Greek athletic performers figured prominently in the neighboring Parthian and Kushan Empires
    of Asia, is offered by Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 40–41, ISSN 2157-9687:
    "The first year of Yongning (120 AD), the southwestern barbarian king of the kingdom of Chan (Burma), Yongyou, proposed illusionists (jugglers) who could metamorphose themselves and spit out fire; they could dismember themselves and change an ox head into a horse head. They were very skilful in acrobatics and they could do a thousand other things. They said that they were from the "west of the seas" (Haixi–Egypt). The west of the seas is the Daqin (Rome). The Daqin is situated to the south-west of the Chan country. During the following year, Andi organized festivities in his country residence and the acrobats were transferred to the Han capital where they gave a performance to the court, and created a great sensation. They received the honours of the Emperor, with gold and silver, and every one of them received a different gift."
  52. ^ Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, pp 40–41, ISSN 2157-9687:
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  149. ISBN 0-521-24333-5
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References

External links
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