American Jews: Difference between revisions
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In 2013, the [[Pew Research Center]]'s ''Portrait of Jewish Americans'' found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to their survey described themselves as [[non-Hispanic whites]], 2% as [[African Americans|black]], 3% as [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic]], and 2% of other racial or ethnic backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2013/10/jewish-american-full-report-for-web.pdf |title=A Portrait of Jewish Americans: Findings from a Pew Research Center Survey of U.S. Jews |page=46 |date=October 1, 2013 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |accessdate=August 19, 2017 }}</ref> Judith Rosenbaum, writing in Jewish Women's Archive, writes that "many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness".<ref>[http://jwa.org/teach/livingthelegacy/american-jews-race-identity-and-civil-rights-movement "American Jews, Race, Identity, and the Civil Rights Movement"] Rosenbaum, Judith. Jewish Women's Archive. Accessed December 12, 2015. "Today, many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness, despite the fact that the vast majority have benefited and continue to benefit from [[[Passing (racial identity)|white-passing]]] privilege. This ambivalence stems from many different places: a deep connection to a Jewish history of discrimination and otherness; a moral imperative to identify with the stranger; an anti-universalist impulse that does not want Jews to be among the "melted" in the proverbial melting pot; an experience of prejudice and awareness of the contingency of whiteness; a feeling that Jewish identity is not fully described by religion but has some ethnic/tribal component that feels more accurately described by race; and a discomfort with contemporary Jewish power and privilege."</ref> |
The overwhelming majority of American Jews view themselves as white. In 2013, the [[Pew Research Center]]'s ''Portrait of Jewish Americans'' found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to their survey described themselves as [[non-Hispanic whites]], 2% as [[African Americans|black]], 3% as [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Hispanic]], and 2% of other racial or ethnic backgrounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2013/10/jewish-american-full-report-for-web.pdf |title=A Portrait of Jewish Americans: Findings from a Pew Research Center Survey of U.S. Jews |page=46 |date=October 1, 2013 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]] |accessdate=August 19, 2017 }}</ref> Judith Rosenbaum, writing in Jewish Women's Archive, writes that "many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness".<ref>[http://jwa.org/teach/livingthelegacy/american-jews-race-identity-and-civil-rights-movement "American Jews, Race, Identity, and the Civil Rights Movement"] Rosenbaum, Judith. Jewish Women's Archive. Accessed December 12, 2015. "Today, many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness, despite the fact that the vast majority have benefited and continue to benefit from [[[Passing (racial identity)|white-passing]]] privilege. This ambivalence stems from many different places: a deep connection to a Jewish history of discrimination and otherness; a moral imperative to identify with the stranger; an anti-universalist impulse that does not want Jews to be among the "melted" in the proverbial melting pot; an experience of prejudice and awareness of the contingency of whiteness; a feeling that Jewish identity is not fully described by religion but has some ethnic/tribal component that feels more accurately described by race; and a discomfort with contemporary Jewish power and privilege."</ref> |
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====African American Jews and other American Jews of African descent==== |
====African American Jews and other American Jews of African descent==== |
Revision as of 00:40, 29 August 2017
Total population | |
---|---|
6,829,000–7,160,000[1] 1.7–2.6% of total U.S. population, 2012[2] Baltimore–Washington | |
United States | 5.4–8.3 million |
Israel | 170,000[3] |
Languages | |
Religion | |
Judaism (35% Reform, 18% Conservative, 10% Orthodox)[4] |
American Jews, also described as Jewish Americans,[5] are Americans who are Jews, whether by religion, ethnicity or nationality.[6] The Jewish community in the United States is composed predominantly of Ashkenazi Jews and their US-born descendants, who make up about 90% of the American Jewish population.[7][8] Other Jewish communities are also present, including Sephardic Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and a smaller number of converts to Judaism. The American Jewish community manifests a wide range of Jewish cultural traditions, as well as encompassing the full spectrum of Jewish religious observance.
Depending on religious definitions and varying population data, the United States is home to the largest or second largest Jewish community in the world, after Israel. In 2012, the American Jewish population was estimated at between 5.5 and 8 million, depending on the definition of the term, which constitutes between 1.7% and 2.6% of the total U.S. population.[1]
History
Jews have been present in what is today the United States of America since the mid-17th century.[9][10] However, they were small in number, with at most 200 to 300 having arrived by 1700.[11] The majority were Sephardic Jewish immigrants of Spanish and Portuguese ancestry;[12] until after 1720 when Ashkenazi Jews from Central and Eastern Europe predominated.[11]
The English
Jewish migration to the United States increased dramatically in the early 1880s, as a result of persecution and economic difficulties in parts of Eastern Europe. Most of these new immigrants were
At the beginning of the 20th century, these newly arrived Jews built support networks consisting of many small synagogues and Ashkenazi Jewish
Americans of Jewish descent have been disproportionately successful in many fields and aspects over the years.[17][18] The Jewish community in America has gone from a lower class minority, with most studies putting upwards of 80% as manual factory laborers prior to World War I and with the majority of fields barred to them,[19] to the consistent richest or second richest ethnicity in America for the past 40 years in terms of average annual salary, with extremely high concentrations in academia and other fields, and today have the highest per capita income of any ethnic group in the United States, at around double the average income of non-Jewish Americans.[20][21][22]
Self identity
Scholars debate whether the favorable historical experience for Jews in the United States has been such a unique experience as to validate American exceptionalism.[23]
Korelitz (1996) shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a racial definition of Jewishness in favor of one that embraced ethnicity. The key to understanding this transition from a racial self-definition to a cultural or ethnic one can be found in the ‘’Menorah Journal’’ between 1915 and 1925. During this time contributors to the Menorah promoted a cultural, rather than a racial, religious, or other view of Jewishness as a means to define Jews in a world that threatened to overwhelm and absorb Jewish uniqueness. The journal represented the ideals of the menorah movement established by
Siporin (1990) uses the family folklore of ethnic Jews to their collective history and its transformation into an historical art form. They tell us how Jews have survived being uprooted and transformed. Many immigrant narratives bear a theme of the arbitrary nature of fate and the reduced state of immigrants in a new culture. By contrast, ethnic family narratives tend to show the ethnic more in charge of his life, and perhaps in danger of losing his Jewishness altogether. Some stories show how a family member successfully negotiated the conflict between ethnic and American identities.[25]
After 1960, memories of
Politics
Election year |
Candidate of the Democratic Party |
% of Jewish vote |
Result |
---|---|---|---|
1916 | Woodrow Wilson |
55 | Won |
1920 | James M. Cox | 19 | Lost |
1924 | John W. Davis | 51 | Lost |
1928 | Al Smith |
72 | Lost |
1932 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | 82 | Won |
1936 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | 85 | Won |
1940 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | 90 | Won |
1944 | Franklin D. Roosevelt | 90 | Won |
1948 | Harry Truman |
75 | Won |
1952 | Adlai Stevenson | 64 | Lost |
1956 | Adlai Stevenson | 60 | Lost |
1960 | John F. Kennedy | 82 | Won |
1964 | Lyndon B. Johnson | 90 | Won |
1968 | Hubert Humphrey | 81 | Lost |
1972 | George McGovern | 65 | Lost |
1976 | Jimmy Carter | 71 | Won |
1980 | Jimmy Carter | 45 | Lost |
1984 | Walter Mondale | 67 | Lost |
1988 | Michael Dukakis | 64 | Lost |
1992 | Bill Clinton | 80 | Won |
1996 | Bill Clinton | 78 | Won |
2000 | Al Gore | 79 | Lost |
2004 | John Kerry | 76 | Lost |
2008 | Barack Obama | 78 | Won |
2012 | Barack Obama | 68 | Won |
2016 | Hillary Clinton | 71[30] | Lost |
In
While earlier Jewish immigrants from Germany tended to be politically conservative, the wave of Jews from Eastern Europe starting in the early 1880s, were generally more liberal or left wing and became the political majority.
Although American Jews generally leaned Republican in the second half of the 19th century, the majority has voted Democratic since at least 1916, when they voted 55% for Woodrow Wilson.[29]
With the election of
During the 1952 and 1956 elections, they voted 60% or more for Democrat
During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about George McGovern and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat Jimmy Carter by 71% over incumbent president Gerald Ford's 27%, but during the Carter re-election campaign of 1980, Jewish voters greatly abandoned the Democrat, with only 45% support, while Republican winner, Ronald Reagan, garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent (former Republican) John Anderson.[29][36] Many American Jews disagreed with the Middle East policies of the Carter administration.[citation needed]
During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Republican retained 31% of the Jewish vote, while 67% voted for Democrat
In the
In the
In the February
As American Jews have progressed economically over time, some commentators[citation needed] have wondered why Jews remain so firmly Democratic and have not shifted political allegiances to the center or right in the way other groups who have advanced economically, such as Hispanics and Arab-Americans, have.[41]
For congressional and senate races, since 1968, American Jews have voted about 70–80% for Democrats;[42] this support increased to 87% for Democratic House candidates during the 2006 elections.[43]
The first American Jew to serve in the Senate was David Levy Yulee, who was Florida's first Senator, serving 1845–1851 and again 1855–1861.
In the 114th Congress, there are 10 Jews
In the 114th Congress, there are 19 Jewish U.S. Representatives.
As of January 2014[update], there are five openly gay men serving in Congress and two are Jewish: Jared Polis of Colorado and David Cicilline of Rhode Island.
In November 2008, Cantor was elected as the
Participation in civil rights movements
Members of the American Jewish community have included prominent participants in
Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress, stated the following when he spoke from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial during the famous March on Washington on August 28, 1963: "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience—one of the spirit and one of our history. ... From our Jewish historic experience of three and a half thousand years we say: Our ancient history began with slavery and the yearning for freedom. During the Middle Ages my people lived for a thousand years in the ghettos of Europe. ... It is for these reasons that it is not merely sympathy and compassion for the black people of America that motivates us. It is, above all and beyond all such sympathies and emotions, a sense of complete identification and solidarity born of our own painful historic experience."[49][50]
The Holocaust
During the World War II period, the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided and was unable to form a common front. Most Jews from Eastern Europe favored Zionism, which saw a return to their historical homeland as the only solution; this had the effect of diverting attention from the persecution of Jews in Germany. German Jews were alarmed at the Nazis but were disdainful of Zionism. Proponents of a Jewish state and Jewish army agitated, but many leaders were so fearful of an antisemitic backlash inside the U.S. that they demanded that all Jews keep a low public profile. One important development was the sudden conversion of most (but not all) Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war.[51] The Holocaust was largely ignored by American media as it was happening. Reporters and editors largely did not believe the atrocity stories coming out of Europe.[52]
The Holocaust had a profound impact on the community in the United States, especially after 1960, as Jews tried to comprehend what had happened, and especially to commemorate and grapple with it when looking to the future. Abraham Joshua Heschel summarized this dilemma when he attempted to understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of history."[53]
International affairs
This attention initially was based on a natural and religious affinity toward and support for Israel in the Jewish community. The attention is also because of the ensuing and unresolved conflicts regarding the founding of Israel and Zionism itself. A lively internal debate commenced, following the
In opposition to Oslo, an alliance of conservative groups, such as the
Demographics
The Jewish population of the United States is either the largest in the world, or second to that of Israel, depending on the sources and methods used to measure it.
Precise population figures vary depending on whether Jews are accounted for based on
In 2012, demographers estimated the core American Jewish population (including religious and non-religious) to be 5,425,000 (or 1.73% of the US population in 2012), citing methodological failures in the previous higher estimates.[60] Other sources say the number is around 6.5 million.
The American Jewish Yearbook population survey had placed the number of American Jews at 6.4 million, or approximately 2.1% of the total population. This figure is significantly higher than the previous large scale survey estimate, conducted by the 2000–2001 National Jewish Population estimates, which estimated 5.2 million Jews. A 2007 study released by the
The population of Americans of Jewish descent is demographically characterized by an aging population composition and low fertility rates significantly below generational replacement.[60]
The Ashkenazi Jews, who are now the vast majority of American Jews, settled first in and around New York City; in recent decades many have moved to Miami, Los Angeles and other large metropolitan areas in the South and West. The metropolitan areas of New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami contain nearly one quarter of the world's Jews.[62]
The National Jewish Population Survey of 1990 asked 4.5 million adult Jews to identify their denomination. The national total showed 38% were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish."[63] In 2013, Pew Research's Jewish population survey found that 35% of American Jews were Reform, 18% were Conservative, 10% were Orthodox, 6% belonged to other sects, and 30% did not identify with a denomination.[64]
Location
According to a study published by demographers and sociologists Ira Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky, the distribution of the Jewish population in 2015 is as follows:[65]
State/territory | American Jews (2015)[65] | Percentage[a] |
---|---|---|
Alabama | 8,800 | 0.18% |
Alaska | 6,175 | 0.84% |
Arizona | 106,300 | 1.58% |
Arkansas | 1,725 | 0.06% |
California | 1,232,690 | 3.18% |
Colorado | 103,020 | 1.92% |
Connecticut | 117,850 | 3.28% |
Delaware | 15,100 | 1.61% |
District of Columbia | 28,000 | 4.25% |
Florida | 651,510 | 3.28% |
Georgia | 128,420 | 1.27% |
Hawaii | 7,280 | 0.51% |
Idaho | 2,225 | 0.14% |
Illinois | 297,435 | 2.31% |
Indiana | 17,220 | 0.26% |
Iowa | 6,170 | 0.20% |
Kansas | 17,425 | 0.60% |
Kentucky | 11,300 | 0.26% |
Louisiana | 10,675 | 0.23% |
Maine | 13,890 | 1.04% |
Maryland | 238,200 | 3.99% |
Massachusetts | 274,680 | 4.07% |
Michigan | 83,155 | 0.84% |
Minnesota | 45,750 | 0.84% |
Mississippi | 1,575 | 0.05% |
Missouri | 64,275 | 1.06% |
Montana | 1,350 | 0.13% |
Nebraska | 6,150 | 0.33% |
Nevada | 76,300 | 2.69% |
New Hampshire | 10,120 | 0.76% |
New Jersey | 523,950 | 5.86% |
New Mexico | 12,725 | 0.61% |
New York | 1,759,570 | 8.91% |
North Carolina | 35,435 | 0.36% |
North Dakota | 400 | 0.05% |
Ohio | 147,715 | 1.27% |
Oklahoma | 4,625 | 0.12% |
Oregon | 40,650 | 1.02% |
Pennsylvania | 293,240 | 2.29% |
Rhode Island | 18,750 | 1.78% |
South Carolina | 13,820 | 0.29% |
South Dakota | 250 | 0.03% |
Tennessee | 19,600 | 0.30% |
Texas | 158,505 | 0.59% |
Utah | 5,650 | 0.19% |
Vermont | 5,985 | 0.96% |
Virginia | 95,695 | 1.15% |
Washington | 72,085 | 1.02% |
West Virginia | 2,310 | 0.12% |
Wisconsin | 33,055 | 0.57% |
Wyoming | 1,150 | 0.20% |
Total | 6,829,930 | 2.14% |
Significant Jewish population centers
Rank | Metro area | Number of Jews | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
(WJC)[62] | (ARDA)[66] | (WJC) | (ASARB) | |
1 | 1 | New York City | 1,750,000 | 2,028,200 |
2 | 3 | Miami
|
535,000 | 337,000 |
3 | 2 | Los Angeles
|
490,000 | 662,450 |
4 | 4 | Philadelphia | 254,000 | 285,950 |
5 | 6 | Chicago | 248,000 | 265,400 |
6 | 8 | San Francisco | 210,000 | 218,700 |
7 | 7 | Boston | 208,000 | 261,100 |
8 | 5 | Baltimore–Washington
|
165,000 | 276,445 |
Rank | State | Percent Jewish |
---|---|---|
1 | New York | 8.91 |
2 | New Jersey | 5.86 |
3 | District of Columbia | 4.25 |
4 | Massachusetts | 4.07 |
5 | Maryland | 3.99 |
6 | Florida | 3.28 |
7 | Connecticut | 3.28 |
8 | California | 3.18 |
9 | Nevada | 2.69 |
10 | Illinois | 2.31 |
11 | Pennsylvania | 2.29 |
Although the
The phenomenon of Israeli migration to the U.S. is often termed
- The
According to the 2001 undertaking of the National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jews have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.
Distribution of Jewish Americans
According to the North American Jewish Data Bank[73] the 100 counties and independent cities as of 2011[update] with the largest Jewish communities, based by percentage of total population, were:
Assimilation and population changes
These parallel themes have facilitated the extraordinary economic, political, and social success of the American Jewish community, but also have contributed to widespread cultural assimilation.[74] More recently however, the propriety and degree of assimilation has also become a significant and controversial issue within the modern American Jewish community, with both political and religious skeptics.[75]
While not all Jews disapprove of
A third of intermarried couples provide their children with a Jewish upbringing, and doing so is more common among intermarried families raising their children in areas with high Jewish populations.[79] The Boston area, for example, is exceptional in that an estimated 60% percent of children of intermarriages are being raised Jewish, meaning that intermarriage would actually be contributing to a net increase in the number of Jews.[80] As well, some children raised through intermarriage rediscover and embrace their Jewish roots when they themselves marry and have children.
In contrast to the ongoing trends of assimilation, some communities within American Jewry, such as
About half of the American Jews are considered to be religious. Out of this 2,831,000 religious Jewish population, 92% are non-Hispanic white, 5% Hispanic (Most commonly from Argentina, Venezuela, or Cuba), 1% Asian (Mostly Bukharian and Persian Jews), 1% Black and 1% Other (mixed race etc.). Almost this many non-religious Jews exist in United States, the proportion of Whites being higher than that among the religious population.[84]
Subgroups
Ancestry | 2000 | 2000 (% of US population) |
---|---|---|
Ashkenazi Jews | 5–6 million[85] | negligible (no data) |
Sephardi Jews
|
200,000–300,000 | negligible (no data) |
Mizrahi Jews | 250,000 | negligible (no data) |
Italqim
|
200,000 | negligible (no data) |
Bukharan Jews | 50,000–60,000 | negligible (no data) |
Mountain Jews | 10,000 to 40,000 | negligible (no data) |
Turkish Jews
|
8,000 | negligible (no data) |
Romaniote Jews | 6,500 | negligible (no data) |
Beta Israel | 1,000[86] | negligible (no data) |
TOTAL | 5,425,000–8,300,000[87] | (1.7–2.6% of the U.S. population) |
American Jews and race
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2017) |
The overwhelming majority of American Jews view themselves as white. In 2013, the Pew Research Center's Portrait of Jewish Americans found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to their survey described themselves as non-Hispanic whites, 2% as black, 3% as Hispanic, and 2% of other racial or ethnic backgrounds.[88] Judith Rosenbaum, writing in Jewish Women's Archive, writes that "many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness".[89]
African American Jews and other American Jews of African descent
The American Jewish community includes African American Jews and other American
Notable African-American Jews include
Relations between American Jews of African descent and other Jewish Americans are generally cordial.[
Socioeconomics
Education plays a major role as a part of Jewish identity; as Jewish culture puts a special premium on it and stresses the importance of cultivation of intellectual pursuits, scholarship and learning, American Jews as a group tend to be better educated and earn more than Americans as a whole.[92][93][94][95][96] Jewish Americans also have an average of 14.7 years of schooling making them the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the United States.[97][98]
Forty-four percent (55% of
31% of American Jews hold a graduate degree, this figure is compared with the general American population where 11% of Americans hold a graduate degree.[99] White collar professional jobs have been attractive to Jews and much of the community tend to take up professional white collar careers requiring tertiary education involving formal credentials where the respectability and reputability of professional jobs is highly prized within Jewish culture. While 46% of Americans work in professional and managerial jobs, 61% of American Jews work as professionals, many of whom are highly educated, salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed in management, professional, and related occupations such as engineering, science, medicine, investment banking, finance, law, and academia.[107]
Much of the Jewish American community lead middle class lifestyles.[108] While the median household net worth of the typical American family is $99,500, among American Jews the figure is $443,000.[109][110] In addition, the median Jewish American income is estimated to be in the range of $97,000 to $98,000, nearly twice as high the American national median.[111] Either of these two statistics may be confounded by the fact that the Jewish population is on average older than other religious groups in the country, with 51% of polled adults over the age of 50 compared to 41% nationally.[101] Older people tend to both have higher income and be more highly educated.
While the median income of Jewish Americans is high, there are still small pockets of poverty. In the New York area, there are approximately 560,000 Jews living in poor or near-poor households, representing about 20% of the New York metropolitan Jewish community. Most affected are children, the elderly, immigrants from the former Soviet Union and Orthodox families.[112]
According to analysis by
The great majority of school-age Jewish students attend public schools, although Jewish day schools and yeshivas are to be found throughout the country. Jewish cultural studies and Hebrew language instruction is also commonly offered at synagogues in the form of supplementary Hebrew schools or Sunday schools.
From the early 1900s until the 1950s, quota systems were imposed at elite colleges and universities particularly in the Northeast, as a response to the growing number of children of recent Jewish immigrants; these limited the number of Jewish students accepted, and greatly reduced their previous attendance. Jewish enrollment at Cornell's School of Medicine fell from 40% to 4% between the world wars, and Harvard's fell from 30% to 4%.[115] Before 1945, only a few Jewish professors were permitted as instructors at elite universities. In 1941, for example, antisemitism drove Milton Friedman from a non-tenured assistant professorship at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.[116] Harry Levin became the first Jewish full professor in the Harvard English department in 1943, but the Economics department decided not to hire Paul Samuelson in 1948. Harvard hired its first Jewish biochemists in 1954.[117]
Today, American Jews no longer face the discrimination in higher education that they did in the past, particularly in the
American Jews at American higher education institutions
Public Universities[118]
|
Private Universities
|
There are an estimated 4,000 Jewish students at the University of California, Berkeley.[122]
Religion
Jewishness in the United States is considered an
Observances and engagement
Jewish religious practice in America is quite varied. Among the 4.3 million American Jews described as "strongly connected" to Judaism, over 80% report some sort of active engagement with Judaism,[123] ranging from attendance at daily prayer services on one end of the spectrum to as little as attendance Passover Seders or lighting Hanukkah candles on the other.
A 2003
The survey found that of the 4.3 million strongly connected Jews, 46% belong to a synagogue. Among those households who belong to a synagogue, 38% are members of
In recent years, there has been a noticeable trend of secular American Jews returning to a more observant, in most cases, Orthodox, lifestyle. Such Jews are called baalei teshuva ("returners", see also Repentance in Judaism).[citation needed]
The 2008
About one-sixth of American Jews maintain
Religious beliefs
American Jews are more likely to be atheist or agnostic than most Americans, especially so compared with Protestants or Catholics. A 2003 poll found that while 79% of Americans believe in God, only 48% of American Jews do, compared with 79% and 90% for Catholics and Protestants respectively. While 66% of Americans said they were "absolutely certain" of God's existence, 24% of American Jews said the same. And though 9% of Americans believe there is no God (8% Catholic and 4% Protestant), 19% of American Jews believe God does not exist.[124]
A 2009 Harris Poll showed American Jews as the religious group most accepting of evolution, with 80% believing in evolution, compared to 51% for Catholics, 32% for Protestants, and 16% of Born-again Christians.[127] They were also less likely to believe in supernatural phenomena such as miracles, angels, or heaven.
Buddhism
Jews are overrepresented in
Contemporary politics
Jews earn like
Puerto Ricans.
Today, American Jews are a distinctive and influential group in the nation's politics. Jeffrey S. Helmreich writes that the ability of American Jews to effect this through political or financial clout is overestimated,[135] that the primary influence lies in the group's voting patterns.[36]
"Jews have devoted themselves to politics with almost religious fervor," writes Mitchell Bard, who adds that Jews have the highest percentage voter turnout of any ethnic group (84% reported being registered to vote[136]).
Though the majority (60–70%) of the country's Jews identify as Democratic, Jews span the political spectrum, with those at higher levels of observance being far more likely to vote Republican than their less observant and secular counterparts.[137]
Owing to high Democratic identification in the
Foreign policy
American Jews have displayed a very strong interest in foreign affairs, especially regarding Germany in the 1930s, and Israel since 1945.
Though some critics charged that Jewish interests were partially responsible for the push to war with Iraq, Jewish Americans were actually more strongly opposed to the
Domestic issues
A 2013 Pew Research Center survey suggests that American Jews' views on domestic politics are intertwined with the community's self-definition as a persecuted minority who benefited from the liberties and societal shifts in the United States and feel obligated to help other minorities enjoy the same benefits. American Jews across age and gender lines tend to vote for and support politicians and policies supported by the Democratic Party. On the other hand, Orthodox American Jews have domestic political views that are more similar to their religious Christian neighbors.[146]
American Jews are largely supportive of
In considering the trade-off between the economy and environmental protection, American Jews were significantly more likely than other religious groups (excepting Buddhism) to favor stronger environmental protection.[152]
Jews in America also overwhelmingly oppose current United States marijuana policy. Eighty-six percent of Jewish Americans opposed arresting nonviolent marijuana smokers, compared to 61% for the population at large and 68% of all Democrats. Additionally, 85% of Jews in the United States opposed using federal law enforcement to close patient cooperatives for medical marijuana in states where medical marijuana is legal, compared to 67% of the population at large and 73% of Democrats.[153]
Jewish American culture
Since the time of the last major wave of Jewish immigration to America (over 2,000,000 Jews from Eastern Europe who arrived between 1890 and 1924), Jewish secular culture in the United States has become integrated in almost every important way with the broader American culture. Many aspects of Jewish American culture have, in turn, become part of the wider culture of the United States.
Language
Year | Hebrew | Yiddish |
---|---|---|
1910a | ||
1920a | ||
1930a | ||
1940a | ||
1960a | ||
1970a | ||
1980[154] | ||
1990[155] | ||
2000[156] | ||
^a Foreign-born population only[157] |
Most American Jews today are native English speakers. A variety of other languages are still spoken within some American Jewish communities, communities that are representative of the various Jewish ethnic divisions from around the world that have come together to make up America's Jewish population.
Many of America's
The
Many recent Jewish immigrants from the
American
There are a diversity of Hispanic Jews living in America. The oldest community is that of the Sephardic Jews of New Netherland. Their ancestors had fled Spain or Portugal during the Inquisition for the Netherlands, and then came to New Netherland. Though there is dispute over whether they should be considered Hispanic. Some Hispanic Jews, particularly in Miami and Los Angeles, immigrated from Latin America. The largest groups are those that fled Cuba after the communist revolution (known as Jewbans), and Argentine Jews. Argentina is the Latin American country with the largest Jewish population. There are a large number of synagogues in the Miami area that give services in Spanish. The last Hispanic Jewish community would be those that recently came from Portugal or Spain, after Spain and Portugal granted citizenship to the descendants of Jews who fled during the Inquisition. All of the above listed Hispanic Jewish groups speak either Spanish or Ladino.
Jewish American literature
Although American Jews have contributed greatly to American arts overall, there remains a distinctly Jewish American literature. Jewish American literature often explores the experience of being a Jew in America, and the conflicting pulls of secular society and history.
Popular culture
Yiddish theater was very well attended, and provided a training ground for performers and producers who moved to Hollywood in the 1920s. Many of the early Hollywood moguls and pioneers were Jewish.[160][161] They played roles in the development of radio and television networks, typified by William S. Paley who ran CBS.[162] Stephen J. Whitfield states that "The Sarnoff family was long dominant at NBC."[163]
Many individual Jews have made significant contributions to American popular culture.[164] There have been many Jewish American actors and performers, ranging from early 1900s actors, to classic Hollywood film stars, and culminating in many currently known actors. The field of American comedy includes many Jews. The legacy also includes songwriters and authors, for example the author of the song "Viva Las Vegas" Doc Pomus, or Billy the Kid composer Aaron Copland. Many Jews have been at the forefront of women's issues.
Government and military
Since 1845, a total of 34 Jews have served in the Senate, including the 14 present-day senators noted above.
The Civil War marked a transition for American Jews. It killed off the antisemitic canard, widespread in Europe, to the effect that Jews are cowardly, preferring to run from war rather than serve alongside their fellow citizens in battle.[165][166]
At least twenty eight American Jews have been awarded the Medal of Honor.
World War II
More than 550,000 Jews served in the
Many Jewish physicists, including project lead J. Robert Oppenheimer, were involved in the Manhattan Project, the secret World War II effort to develop the atomic bomb. Many of these were refugees from Nazi Germany or from antisemitic persecution elsewhere in Europe.
American folk music
Jews have been involved in the American folk music scene since the late 19th century;[168] these tended to be refugees from Central and Eastern Europe, and significantly more economically disadvantaged than their established Western European and Sephardic coreligionists.[169] Historians see it as a legacy of the secular Yiddish theater, cantorial traditions and a desire to assimilate. By the 1940s Jews had become established in the American folk music scene.
Examples of the major impact Jews have had in the American folk music arena include, but are not limited to:
Three of the four creators of the Newport Folk Festival, Wein, Bikel and Grossman (Seeger is not) were Jewish. Albert Grossman put together Peter, Paul and Mary, of which Yarrow is Jewish. Oscar Brand, from a Canadian Jewish family, has the longest running radio program "Oscar Brand's Folksong Festival" which has been on air consecutively since 1945 from NYC.[170] And is the first American broadcast where the host himself will answer any personal correspondence.
The influential group The Weavers, successor to the Almanac Singers, led by Pete Seeger, had a Jewish manager, and 2 of the 4 members of the group were Jewish (Gilbert and Hellerman). The B-side of "Good Night Irene" had the Hebrew folk song personally chosen for the record by Pete Seeger "Tzena, Tzena, Tzena".
The influential folk music magazine Sing Out! was co-founded and edited by Irwin Silber in 1951, and edited by him until 1967, when the magazine stopped publication for decades. Rolling Stone magazine's first music critic Jon Landau is of German Jewish descent. Izzy Young who created the legendary[171] Folklore Center in NY, and currently the Folklore Centrum near Mariatorget in Södermalm, Sweden, which relates to American and Swedish folk music.[172]
Dave Van Ronk observed that the behind the scenes 1950s folk scene "was at the very least 50 percent Jewish, and they adopted the music as part of their assimilation into the Anglo-American tradition which itself was largely an artificial construct but none the less provided us with some common ground".[173]
Financial services
Jews have been involved in financial services since the colonial era. They received rights to trade fur, from the Dutch and Swedish colonies. British governors honored these rights after taking over. During the Revolutionary War, Haym Solomon helped create America's first semi-central bank, and advised Alexander Hamilton on the building of America's financial system.
American Jews in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries played a major role in developing America's financial services industry, both at investment banks and investment funds.[174] German Jewish bankers began to assume a major role in American finance in the 1830s when government and private borrowing to pay for canals, railroads and other internal improvements increased rapidly and significantly. Men such as August Belmont (Rothschild's agent in New York and a leading Democrat), Philip Speyer, Jacob Schiff (at Kuhn, Loeb & Company), Joseph Seligman, Philip Lehman (of Lehman Brothers), Jules Bache, and Marcus Goldman (of Goldman Sachs) illustrate this financial elite.[175] As was true of their non-Jewish counterparts, family, personal, and business connections, a reputation for honesty and integrity, ability, and a willingness to take calculated risks were essential to recruit capital from widely scattered sources. The families and the firms which they controlled were bound together by religious and social factors, and by the prevalence of intermarriage. These personal ties fulfilled real business functions before the advent of institutional organization in the 20th century.[176][177] Antisemitic elements often falsely targeted them as key players in a supposed Jewish cabal conspiring to dominate the world.[178]
Since the late 20th century, Jews have played a major role in the hedge fund industry, according to Zuckerman (2009).
Federal Reserve
Science, business, and academia
With to the Jewish penchant to be drawn to white collar professional jobs and having excelled at intellectual pursuits, many Jews have also become been remarkably successful as an entrepreneurial and professional minority in the United States.[108] Jewish culture has a strong tradition, emphasis and respect for money and a deep emphasis on financial acumen, business shrewdness, and entrepreneurial savvy have resulted many Jews to start their own businesses that have become major economic growth engines that shape much of the U.S. economy. Many Jewish family businesses that are passed down from one generation to the next as well as serve as an asset, source of income and layering a strong financial groundwork for the family's overall socioeconomic prosperity.[197][198][199][200][201] Within the Jewish American cultural sphere, Jewish Americans have also developed a strong culture of entrepreneurship as excellence in entrepreneurship and engagement in business and commerce is highly prized in Jewish culture.[202] American Jews have also been drawn to various disciplines within academia such as physics, sociology, economics, psychology, mathematics, philosophy and linguistics (see Secular Jewish culture for some of the causes), and have played a disproportionate role in numerous academic domains. Jewish American intellectuals such as Saul Bellow, Ayn Rand, Noam Chomsky, Thomas Friedman, and Elie Wiesel have made a major impact within mainstream American public life. Of the United States top 200 most influential intellectuals, 50% are fully Jewish with 76% of Jewish Americans overall having at least one Jewish parent.[203][204][205] Of American Nobel Prize winners, 37 percent have been Jewish Americans (18 times the percentage of Jews in the population), as have been 61 percent of the John Bates Clark Medal in economics recipients (thirty-five times the Jewish percentage).[206]
In the business world, while Jewish Americans only constitute less than 2.5 percent of the U.S. population, they occupied 7.7 percent of board seats at various U.S.
Since many careers in science, business, and academia generally pay well, Jewish Americans also tend to have a higher average income than most Americans. The 2000–2001 National Jewish Population Survey shows that the median income of a Jewish family is $54,000 a year and 34% of Jewish households report income over $75,000 a year.[209]
Notable people
See also
- American Jewish cuisine
- Ancestry of the people of the United States
- Israeli American
- List of Jewish political milestones in the United States
- National Museum of American Jewish Military History
- Timeline of women rabbis in America
Notes and references
Footnotes
- ^ Percentage of the state population that identifies itself as Jewish.
References
- ^ a b c
6,700,000–6,829,930 according to:
- Arnold Dashefsky; Ira M. Sheskin (February 3, 2016). American Jewish Year Book 2015: The Annual Record of the North American Jewish Communities. Springer. pp. 175–. ISBN 978-3-319-24505-8.
- "A portrait of Jewish Americans Chapter 1: Population Estimates". Pew Research Center. October 1, 2013. Retrieved October 7, 2013.
Combining 5.3 million adult Jews (the estimated size of the net Jewish population in this survey) with 1.3 million children (in households with a Jewish adult who are being raised Jewish or partly Jewish) yields a total estimate of 6.7 million Jews of all ages in the United States (rounded to the nearest 100,000)
- American Jewish Population Project (2015), Steinhardt Social Research Institute, Brandeis University
- DellaPergola, Sergio (2015). World Jewish Population, 2015 (Report). Berman Jewish DataBank. Retrieved May 4, 2016.
- Arnold Dashefsky; Ira M. Sheskin (February 3, 2016). American Jewish Year Book 2015: The Annual Record of the North American Jewish Communities. Springer. pp. 175–.
- ^ 2012 U.S. Census Bureau estimate
- ^ Maltz, Judy (August 27, 2015). "60,000 American Jews Live in the West Bank, New Study Reveals". Haaretz. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
- ^ "Israel versus the Jews". The Economist. July 7, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2017.
- ^ "Religion: Jews v. Jews". Archived from the original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
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[The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey] showed that only 5% of American Jews consider being Jewish solely in terms of being a member of a religious group. Thus, the vast majority of American Jews view themselves as members of an ethnic group and/or a cultural group, and/or a nationality.
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- ^ Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History, p. 52
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- ^ Yiddish is a dialect of German written in the Hebrew alphabet and based entirely in the East European Jewish population. Robert Moses Shapiro (2003). Why Didn't the Press Shout?: American & International Journalism During the Holocaust. KTAV. p. 18.
- ^ Sarna, American Judaism (2004) pp. 284–5
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Jews comprise 2.2% of the USA population, but they represent 30% of faculty at elite colleges, 21% of Ivy League students, 25% of the Turing Award winners, 23% of the wealthiest Americans, and 38% of the Oscar-winning film directors
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- ^ See Murray Friedman, What Went Wrong? The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance. (1995)
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The 1993 Oslo Agreement made this split in the Jewish community official. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin's handshake with Yasir Arafat during the September 13 White House ceremony elicited dramatically opposed reactions among American Jews. To the liberal universalists the accord was highly welcome news. As one commentator put it, after a year of tension between Israel and the United States, "there was an audible sigh of relief from American and Jewish liberals. Once again, they could support Israel as good Jews, committed liberals, and loyal Americans." The community "could embrace the Jewish state, without compromising either its liberalism or its patriotism". Hidden deeper in this collective sense of relief was the hope that, following the peace with the Palestinians, Israel would transform itself into a Western-style liberal democracy, featuring a full separation between the state and religion. Not accidentally, many of the leading advocates of Oslo, including the Yossi Beilin, the then Deputy Foreign Minister, cherish the belief that a "normalized" Israel would become less Jewish and more democratic.
However, to some right wing Jews, the peace treaty was worrisome. From their perspective, Oslo was not just an affront to the sanctity of how they interpreted their culture, but also a personal threat to the lives and livelihood settlers, in the West Bank and Gaza AKA "Judea and Samaria". For these Jews, such as Morton Klein, the president of the Zionist organization of America, and Norman Podhoretz, the editor of Commentary, the peace treaty amounted to an appeasement of Palestinian terrorism. They and others repeatedly warned that the newly established Palestinian Authority (PA) would pose a serious security threat to Israel. - ^ Lasensky, Scott (March 2002). Barry Rubin (ed.). "Underwriting Peace in the Middle East: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Limits of Economic Inducements". Middle East Review of International Affairs. 6 (1). Archived from the original on May 10, 2009.
The Palestinian aid effort was certainly not helped by the heated debate that quickly developed inside the Beltway. Not only was the Israeli electorate divided on the Oslo accords, but so, too, was the American Jewish community, particularly at the leadership level and among the major New York and Washington-based public interest groups. U.S. Jews opposed to Oslo teamed up with Israelis "who brought their domestic issues to Washington" and together they pursued a campaign that focused most of its attention on Congress and the aid program. The dynamic was new to Washington. The Administration, the Rabin-Peres government, and some American Jewish groups teamed on one side while Israeli opposition groups and anti-Oslo American Jewish organizations pulled Congress in the other direction.
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Religious Jews regarded those who assimilated with horror, and Zionists campaigned against assimilation as an act of treason.
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- Whitfield, Stephen J. In Search of American Jewish Culture. 1999
- Yerushalmi, Yosef Hayim. Zakhor: Jewish history and Jewish memory (University of Washington Press, 2012)
Primary sources
- Marcus, Jacob Rader, ed. The American Jewish Woman, A Documentary History (Ktav 1981).
- Schappes, Morris Urman, ed. A documentary history of the Jews in the United States, 1654–1875 (Citadel Press, 1952).
- Staub, Michael E. ed. The Jewish 1960s: An American Sourcebook University Press of New England, 2004; 371 pp.
External links
- American Jewish Historical Society
- Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner. Full text resources include the American Journal of Jewish Communal Service back to 1902, archives of the American Jewish Yearbook, as well as population estimates, surveys, and analyses on American Jewish communities and political behavior.
- Resources > Jewish communities > America > Northern America[dead link] The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
- Feinstein Center. Comprehensive collection of links to Jewish American history, organizations, and issues.
- American Jewish Archives – The Larger Task, Rabbi Jacob Rader Marcuson American Jewry
- United Jewish Communities of North America. Also site of population survey statistics.
- Jews in America from the Jewish Virtual Library.
- Jewish-American Literature
- Jewish-American History on the Web
- 2000–01 National Jewish Population Survey