Bologna: Difference between revisions
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'''Bologna''' ({{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|l|əʊ|n|j|ə}} {{respell|bə|LOHN|yə}}; {{IPA-it|boˈloɲːa|-|It-Bologna.ogg}}; {{lang-egl|Bulåggna}}, {{IPA-all|buˈlʌɲːa|pron}}; {{lang-lat|Bŏnṓnĭa}}) is the capital and largest city of the [[Emilia-Romagna]] Region in [[Northern Italy]]. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, at the heart of a [[Metropolitan City of Bologna|metropolitan area]] of about one million people. |
'''Bologna''' ({{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|l|əʊ|n|j|ə}} {{respell|bə|LOHN|yə}}; {{IPA-it|boˈloɲːa|-|It-Bologna.ogg}}; {{lang-egl|Bulåggna}}, {{IPA-all|buˈlʌɲːa|pron}}; {{lang-lat|Bŏnṓnĭa}}) is the capital and largest city of the [[Emilia-Romagna]] Region in [[Northern Italy]]. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, at the heart of a [[Metropolitan City of Bologna|metropolitan area]] of about one million people. |
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Of [[Etrusca]]n origin, the city has been a major urban centre for centuries, first under the Romans (''Bononia''), then again in the [[Middle Ages]], as a free municipality and signoria, when it was among the [[List of largest European cities in history|largest European cities by population]]. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy [[portico]]es, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s.<ref>Romy Grieco, ''Bologna: a city to discover''(1976) pp 8-12, 138-45.</ref> Home to the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest university in the world]],<ref>[http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ Top Universities] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117202932/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |date=17 January 2009 }} ''World University Rankings'' Retrieved 6 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/University/Our+History/default.htm Our History] – Università di Bologna</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18&dq=the+oldest+university+in+the+world+Bologna&hl=en&ei=lFy-TtitBY3RrQflnNnjAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=the%20oldest%20university%20in%20the%20world%20Bologna&f=false |title=The Challenge of Bologna|author=Paul L. Gaston |year=2010 |page=18 |isbn=1-57922-366-4 |accessdate=7 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008">Hunt Janin: "The university in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, {{ISBN|0-7864-3462-7}}, p. 55f.</ref><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&printsec=frontcover ''A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages''], Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47–55</ref> the [[University of Bologna]], |
Of [[Etrusca]]n origin, the city has been a major urban centre for centuries, first under the Romans (''Bononia''), then again in the [[Middle Ages]], as a free municipality and signoria, when it was among the [[List of largest European cities in history|largest European cities by population]]. Famous for its towers, churches and lengthy [[portico]]es, Bologna has a well-preserved historical centre, thanks to a careful restoration and conservation policy which began at the end of the 1970s.<ref>Romy Grieco, ''Bologna: a city to discover''(1976) pp 8-12, 138-45.</ref> Home to the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest university in the world]],<ref>[http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ Top Universities] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117202932/http://www.topuniversities.com/worlduniversityrankings/results/2007/overall_rankings/worlds_oldest_universities/ |date=17 January 2009 }} ''World University Rankings'' Retrieved 6 January 2010</ref><ref>[http://www.eng.unibo.it/PortaleEn/University/Our+History/default.htm Our History] – Università di Bologna</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyjnHZ1IIlgC&pg=PA18&dq=the+oldest+university+in+the+world+Bologna&hl=en&ei=lFy-TtitBY3RrQflnNnjAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=the%20oldest%20university%20in%20the%20world%20Bologna&f=false |title=The Challenge of Bologna|author=Paul L. Gaston |year=2010 |page=18 |isbn=1-57922-366-4 |accessdate=7 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="Hunt Janin 2008">Hunt Janin: "The university in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, {{ISBN|0-7864-3462-7}}, p. 55f.</ref><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: [https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC&printsec=frontcover ''A History of the University in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages''], Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47–55</ref> the [[University of Bologna]], established in AD 1088, the city has a large student population that gives it a cosmopolitan character. In 2000 it was declared [[European capital of culture]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.travelplan.it/bologna_guide_history_culture.htm |title=Bologna history – Bologna culture – Bologna – attractions in Bologna – art Bologna – history guide Bologna |publisher=Travelplan.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> and in 2006, a [[UNESCO]] "city of music". |
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Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate.<ref name="citymayors.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.citymayors.com/economics/europe-growth-cities.html |title=European growth cities |publisher=City Mayors |date= |accessdate=24 January 2014}}</ref> As a consequence, Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country: in 2011 it ranked 1st out of 107 Italian cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/speciali/qvita_2011/home.shtml |title=Qualità della vita |publisher=Il Sole 24 ORE |date= |accessdate=5 December 2011}}</ref> |
Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate.<ref name="citymayors.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.citymayors.com/economics/europe-growth-cities.html |title=European growth cities |publisher=City Mayors |date= |accessdate=24 January 2014}}</ref> As a consequence, Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country: in 2011 it ranked 1st out of 107 Italian cities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilsole24ore.com/speciali/qvita_2011/home.shtml |title=Qualità della vita |publisher=Il Sole 24 ORE |date= |accessdate=5 December 2011}}</ref> |
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[[File:Communal fight in Bologna (Sercambi).jpg|thumb|Depiction of a 14th-century fight between the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in Bologna, from the ''Croniche'' of Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca.]] |
[[File:Communal fight in Bologna (Sercambi).jpg|thumb|Depiction of a 14th-century fight between the Guelf and Ghibelline factions in Bologna, from the ''Croniche'' of Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca.]] |
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First settled around 1000 BCE and then founded as the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] ''Felsina'' about 500 BCE, it was occupied by the [[Boii]] in the 4th century BCE and became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of ''Bononia'' in 196 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hornblower et |
First settled around 1000 BCE and then founded as the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] ''Felsina'' about 500 BCE, it was occupied by the [[Boii]] in the 4th century BCE and became a Roman colony and municipium with the name of ''Bononia'' in 196 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hornblower et al.|first1=Simon|title=The Oxford classical dictionary.|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0199545568|page=230|edition=3rd}}</ref> After the fall of the Roman Empire, Bologna, then a frontier outpost of the [[Byzantine]] [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] was repeatedly sacked by the [[Goths]]; it is in this period that legendary bishop [[St. Petronius|Petronius]], according to ancient chronicles, rebuilt the ruined town and founded the [[Santo Stefano, Bologna|basilica of Saint Stephen]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Butler|first1=Alban|title=The Lives Of The Fathers, Martyrs, And Other Principal Saints|date=1814|publisher=John Murphy|location=London|accessdate=3 November 2017}}</ref> Petronius is still revered as patron saint of Bologna. |
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In 727-28, the city was sacked and captured by the [[Lombards|Lombard]] king [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]], becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian for "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Heers|first1=Jacques|title=La città nel medioevo in Occidente : paesaggi, poteri e conflitti|date=1995|publisher=Jaca Book|location=Milano|isbn=978-8816403741|page=63 |
In 727-28, the city was sacked and captured by the [[Lombards|Lombard]] king [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]], becoming part of that kingdom. These Germanic conquerors built an important new quarter, called "addizione longobarda" (Italian for "Longobard addition") near the complex of St. Stephen.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Heers|first1=Jacques|title=La città nel medioevo in Occidente : paesaggi, poteri e conflitti|date=1995|publisher=Jaca Book|location=Milano|isbn=978-8816403741|page=63}}</ref> In the last quarter of the 8th century, [[Charlemagne]], at the request of pope [[Adrian I]], invaded the Lombard Kingdom, causing its eventual demise. However Bologna, occupied by Frankish troops in 774 on behalf of the papacy, remained under imperial authority and prospered as a frontier mark of the [[Carolingian empire]].<ref name="Kleinhenz">{{cite book|last1=Kleinhenz|first1=Christopher|title=Medieval Italy : an encyclopedia|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-0415939294|page=134}}</ref> |
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After the death of [[Matilda of Tuscany]] in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]. However, when [[Frederick Barbarossa]] subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the [[Lombard League]], which then defeated the imperial armies at the [[Battle of Legnano]] and established an effective autonomy at the [[Peace of Constance]] in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly (this is the period in which its famous towers were built) and it became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Luzzatto|first1=Gino|title=An Economic History of Italy: From the Fall of the Empire to the Beginning of the 16th Century|date=2015|publisher=Routledge;|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|isbn=978-1138864955|page=111|edition=1st |
After the death of [[Matilda of Tuscany]] in 1115, Bologna obtained substantial concessions from Emperor [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]. However, when [[Frederick Barbarossa]] subsequently attempted to strike down the deal, Bologna joined the [[Lombard League]], which then defeated the imperial armies at the [[Battle of Legnano]] and established an effective autonomy at the [[Peace of Constance]] in 1183. Subsequently, the town began to expand rapidly (this is the period in which its famous towers were built) and it became one of the main commercial trade centres of northern Italy thanks to a system of canals that allowed barges and ships to come and go.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Luzzatto|first1=Gino|title=An Economic History of Italy: From the Fall of the Empire to the Beginning of the 16th Century|date=2015|publisher=Routledge;|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|isbn=978-1138864955|page=111|edition=1st}}</ref> Believed to have been established in 1088, the [[University of Bologna]] is widely considered the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|oldest university in continuous operation]].<ref name="Hunt Janin 2008"/><ref name="Ridder-Symoens 1992"/> The university originated as a centre for the study of [[medieval Roman law]] under major [[glossator]]s, including [[Irnerius]]. It numbered [[Dante]], [[Boccaccio]] and [[Petrarch|Petrarca]] among its students.<ref name=unibo>[http://www.unibo.it/Portale/Ateneo/La+nostra+storia/NoveSecoli.htm Nove secoli di storia] – Università di Bologna</ref> The medical school was especially renowned.<ref>Nancy G. Siraisi, ''Taddeo Alderotti and his pupils: two generations of italian medical learning'' (Princeton University Press, 1981).</ref> By 1200, Bologna was a thriving commercial and artisanal centre of about 10,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Janin|first1=Hunt|title=The university in medieval life, 1179-1499|date=2008|publisher=McFarland & Co.|location=Jefferson, NC|isbn=978-0786434626|page=56}}</ref> |
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During a campaign to support the imperial cities of [[Modena]] and [[Cremona]] against Bologna, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]'s son, [[Enzo of Sardinia|King Enzo of Sardinia]], was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the [[Battle of Fossalta]]. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named [[Palazzo Re Enzo]] after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnaldi|first1=Girolamo|title=Italy and its invaders|date=2008|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0674030336|page=111}}</ref> After the death of his half-brothers [[Conrad IV of Germany|Conrad IV]] in 1254, [[Frederick of Antioch]] in 1256 and [[Manfred, King of Sicily|Manfred]] in 1266, as well as the execution his nephew [[Conradin]] in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs. |
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of [[Modena]] and [[Cremona]] against Bologna, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]]'s son, [[Enzo of Sardinia|King Enzo of Sardinia]], was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the [[Battle of Fossalta]]. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named [[Palazzo Re Enzo]] after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Arnaldi|first1=Girolamo|title=Italy and its invaders|date=2008|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0674030336|page=111}}</ref> After the death of his half-brothers [[Conrad IV of Germany|Conrad IV]] in 1254, [[Frederick of Antioch]] in 1256 and [[Manfred, King of Sicily|Manfred]] in 1266, as well as the execution his nephew [[Conradin]] in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs. |
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During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was |
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the tyranny of his envoy cardinal [[Bertrand du Pouget]] in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popoular rebellion and Bologna became a [[signoria]] under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334.<ref name="Partner">{{cite book|last1=Partner|first1=Peter|title=The lands of St. Peter : the papal state in the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance|date=1972|publisher=Univ. of California Pr.|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0520021815|pages=318–327}}</ref> By the arrival of the [[Black Death]] in 1348, Bologna had 40-50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20-25,000 after the plague.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wray|first1=Shona Kelly|title=Communities and crisis : Bologna during the Black Death|date=2009|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9004176349|pages=95–96}}</ref> |
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In 1350 Bologna was conquered by [[archbishop]] [[Giovanni Visconti (archbishop of Milan)|Giovanni Visconti]], the new lord of Milan. However, following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by cardinal [[Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz]] after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to [[Bernabò Visconti]] (the heir to Giovanni, died in 1354).<ref name="Partner"/> In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the |
In 1350 Bologna was conquered by [[archbishop]] [[Giovanni Visconti (archbishop of Milan)|Giovanni Visconti]], the new lord of Milan. However, following a rebellion by the town's governor, a renegade member of the Visconti family, Bologna was recuperated to the papacy in 1363 by cardinal [[Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz]] after a long negotiation involving a huge indemnity paid to [[Bernabò Visconti]] (the heir to Giovanni, died in 1354).<ref name="Partner"/> In 1376, Bologna again revolted against Papal rule and joined Florence in the unsuccessful [[War of the Eight Saints]]. However, extreme infighting inside the Holy See following the [[Western Schism]] prevented the papacy to restore its domination over Bologna that remained relatively independent for some decades as an oligarchic republic. In 1401 [[Giovanni I Bentivoglio]] took power by a coup with the support of Milan but, having turned his back on them and allied with Florence, the Milanese marched on Bologna and had him killed the following year. In 1442 [[Annibale I Bentivoglio|Hannibal I Bentivoglio]], nephew of Giovanni, recovered Bologna from the Milanese, only to be assassinated in a conspiracy plotted by pope [[Eugene IV]] three years later. But the [[signoria]] of the [[Bentivoglio family]] was then firmly established, and the power passed to his cousin [[Sante Bentivoglio]] that ruled until 1462, followed by [[Giovanni II Bentivoglio|Giovanni II]]. Giovanni II managed to resist the expansionist designs of [[Cesare Borgia]] for some time, but on October 7, 1506, Pope [[Julius II]] issued a bull deposing and [[excommunication|excommunicating]] Bentivoglio and placing the city under [[interdict]]. When the papal troops, along with a contingent sent by [[Louis XII of France]], marched against Bologna, Bentivoglio and his family fled. Julius II entered the city triumphantly on November 10. |
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===Early modern=== |
===Early modern=== |
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The period of Papal rule over Bologna has been generally evalued by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s that were in fact marked by some major developements in Bologna. In 1530, [[Holy Roman Empire|Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] was [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|crowned]] in Bologna. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the [[Palazzo dei Banchi]] were built, along with the [[Archiginnasio]], the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters workng in Bologna during this period established the [[Bolognese School]] which includes [[Annibale Carracci]], [[Domenichino]], [[Guercino]] and others of European fame.<ref name="Raimond Van Marle 1924 pp 394-481">Raimond Van Marle. ''The Development of the Italian Schools of Painting, Volume 4'' (1924) pp 394-481.</ref> |
The period of Papal rule over Bologna has been generally evalued by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s that were in fact marked by some major developements in Bologna. In 1530, [[Holy Roman Empire|Emperor]] [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] was [[Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor|crowned]] in Bologna. In 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the [[Palazzo dei Banchi]] were built, along with the [[Archiginnasio]], the main building of the university. The period of Papal rule saw also the construction of many churches and other religious establishments, and the restoration of older ones. At this time, Bologna had ninety-six convents, more than any other Italian city. Painters workng in Bologna during this period established the [[Bolognese School]] which includes [[Annibale Carracci]], [[Domenichino]], [[Guercino]] and others of European fame.<ref name="Raimond Van Marle 1924 pp 394-481">Raimond Van Marle. ''The Development of the Italian Schools of Painting, Volume 4'' (1924) pp 394-481.</ref> |
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In the 17th century, the economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. During the [[1629-31 Italian plague|Italian Plague of 1629–31]] Bologna lost up to a third of its population.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Christopher F.|title=Early Modern Italy a Social History.|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-0415214346|page=23|edition=[Online-Ausg.] |
In the 17th century, the economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. During the [[1629-31 Italian plague|Italian Plague of 1629–31]] Bologna lost up to a third of its population.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Christopher F.|title=Early Modern Italy a Social History.|date=2001|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-0415214346|page=23|edition=[Online-Ausg.]}}</ref> The traditional silk industry was in a critical state.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pullan|first1=edited with an introduction by Brian|title=Crisis and change in the Venetian economy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries|date=2006|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415377003|page=132}}</ref> The university was losing students, that once came from all over Europe, because of the illiberal attitudes of the Church towards culture (especially after the [[Galileo affair|trial of Galileo]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gross|first1=Hanns|title=Rome in the Age of Enlightenment : the Post-Tridentine Syndrome and the Ancien Regime|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521893787|page=238}}</ref> Bologna continued to suffer a progressive deindustrialisation also in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gross|first1=Hanns|title=Rome in the Age of Enlightenment : the Post-Tridentine Syndrome and the Ancien Regime|date=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521893787|page=89}}</ref> |
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In the mid-1700s pope [[Benedict XIV]], a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promoting the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system and liberalising trade<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=A.D.|title=The early modern papacy : from the Council of Trent to the French Revolution, 1564-1789|date=2000|publisher=Longman|location=Harlow, England|isbn=978-0582087477|page=261 |
In the mid-1700s pope [[Benedict XIV]], a Bolognese, tried to reverse the decline of the city with a series of reforms intended to stimulate the economy and promoting the arts. However, these reforms achieved only mixed results. The pope's efforts to stimulate the decaying textile industry had little success, while he was more successful in reforming the tax system and liberalising trade<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=A.D.|title=The early modern papacy : from the Council of Trent to the French Revolution, 1564-1789|date=2000|publisher=Longman|location=Harlow, England|isbn=978-0582087477|page=261}}</ref> and relaxed the oppressive system of censorship.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Messberger et al.|first1=Rebecca|title=Benedict XIV and the Enlightenment: Art, Science, and Spirituality|date=2016|publisher=University of Toronto Press|location=Toronto|isbn=978-1442637184|page=211}}</ref> |
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The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting from the second half of the 18th century. In 1790 the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however this figure had remained unchanged for decades. The economy was stagnant because of Papal policies that distorted trade with heavy custom dues and sold concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers thus lowering competition, depressing productivity and incentivising corruption.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hearder|first1=Harry|title=Italy in the age of the Risorgimento : 1790 - 1870|date=1994|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=978-0582491465|page=121|edition=7. impr. |
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting from the second half of the 18th century. In 1790 the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however this figure had remained unchanged for decades. The economy was stagnant because of Papal policies that distorted trade with heavy custom dues and sold concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers thus lowering competition, depressing productivity and incentivising corruption.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hearder|first1=Harry|title=Italy in the age of the Risorgimento : 1790 - 1870|date=1994|publisher=Longman|location=London|isbn=978-0582491465|page=121|edition=7. impr.}}</ref> |
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===Late modern and contemporary=== |
===Late modern and contemporary=== |
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In 1796 [[Napoleon]] entered Bologna, making it the capital of the short lived [[Cispadane Republic]], a [[client state]] of the [[Napoleonic empire|French Empire]]. After the fall of Napoleon, the [[Congress of Vienna]] of 1815 placed Bologna once again under the oppressive rule of the [[Papal State]]s, leading to the unsuccessful [[Revolutions of 1830|uprisings of 1831]]. By the mid 1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living of rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hughes|first1=Steven C.|title=Crime, disorder, and the Risorgimento : the politics of policing in Bologna|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521444507|page=17|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> In the [[revolutions of 1848]] the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crashed the revolutionaries. Finally, in the aftermath of [[Second War of Italian Independence]], when the French and Pidemontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860 Bologna voted for joining the new [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Kingdom of Italy]]. |
In 1796 [[Napoleon]] entered Bologna, making it the capital of the short lived [[Cispadane Republic]], a [[client state]] of the [[Napoleonic empire|French Empire]]. After the fall of Napoleon, the [[Congress of Vienna]] of 1815 placed Bologna once again under the oppressive rule of the [[Papal State]]s, leading to the unsuccessful [[Revolutions of 1830|uprisings of 1831]]. By the mid 1840s, unemployment levels were very high and traditional industries continued to languish or disappear; Bologna became a city of economic disparity with the top 10 percent of the population living of rent, another 20 percent exercising professions or commerce and 70 percent working in low-paid, often insecure manual jobs. The Papal census of 1841 reported 10,000 permanent beggars and another 30,000 (out of a total population of 70,000) who lived in poverty.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hughes|first1=Steven C.|title=Crime, disorder, and the Risorgimento : the politics of policing in Bologna|date=1993|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521444507|page=17|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> In the [[revolutions of 1848]] the Austrian garrisons which controlled the city on behalf of the Pope were temporarily expelled, but eventually came back and crashed the revolutionaries. Finally, in the aftermath of [[Second War of Italian Independence]], when the French and Pidemontese troops expelled the Austrians from Italian lands, on 11 and 12 March 1860 Bologna voted for joining the new [[Kingdom of Italy (1861-1946)|Kingdom of Italy]]. |
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In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Toniolo|first1=Gianni|title=An Economic History of Liberal Italy: 1850-1918|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|isbn=9781138830523|page=46 |
In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Toniolo|first1=Gianni|title=An Economic History of Liberal Italy: 1850-1918|publisher=[[Routledge]]|location=Abingdon-on-Thames|isbn=9781138830523|page=46}}</ref> Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cardoza|first1=Anthony L.|title=Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901-1926|date=2016|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=9780691641409|pages=32–40}}</ref> Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, [[Marco Minghetti]]. |
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After [[Wolrd War 1]], Bologna was heavily involved in the [[Biennio Rosso]] socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the tradiotionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] movement of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cardoza|first1=Anthony L.|title=Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901-1926|date=2016|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=9780691641409|pages=387–88 |
After [[Wolrd War 1]], Bologna was heavily involved in the [[Biennio Rosso]] socialist uprisings. As a consequence, the tradiotionally moderate elites of the city turned their back on the progressive faction and gave their support to the rising [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] movement of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cardoza|first1=Anthony L.|title=Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism: The Province of Bologna, 1901-1926|date=2016|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, New Jersey|isbn=9780691641409|pages=387–88}}</ref> [[Dino Grandi]], a high-ranking Fascist party official and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, remembered for being an Anglophile, was from Bologna. During the [[interwar years]], Bologna developed into an important manufacturing centre for food processing, agricultural machinery and metalworking. The Fascist regime poured in massive investments, for example with the setting up of a giant tobacco manufacturing plant in 1937.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sabel et al.|first1=Charles F.|title=World of possibilities : flexibility and mass production in western industrialization|date=1997|publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press|location=Cambridge [u.a.]|isbn=978-0521495554|pages=382–88|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> |
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====World War II==== |
====World War II==== |
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Bologna suffered extensive damage during [[World War II]]. The strategic |
Bologna suffered extensive damage during [[World War II]]. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a strategic target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left more than 1,000 people dead and thousands injured.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Manaresi|first1=Filippo D'Ajutolo. Testi di Franco|title=Bologna ferita : fotografie inedite 1943 - 1945|date=1999|publisher=Ed. Pendragon|location=Bologna|isbn=9788883420177|page=18}}</ref> |
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After the [[Armistice of Cassibile|armistice of 1943]], the city became a key centre of the [[Italian resistance movement]]. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around [[Porta Lame, Bologna|Porta Lame]], waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the ''Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica'' against [[Italian Social Republic|Fascist]] and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://certosa.cineca.it/2/eventi.php?TBL=EVENTI_STORICI&ID=21 |title=7 novembre 1944 – Battaglia di Porta Lame |author= |date= |work=Il Museo Virtuale della Certosa |publisher=Certosa.cineca.it |language=Italian |accessdate=2 May 2012}}</ref> Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the [[Battle of Bologna]] which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general [[Arturo Scattini]], who entered the centre from ''Porta Maggiore'' to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out on to the streets to celebrate. |
After the [[Armistice of Cassibile|armistice of 1943]], the city became a key centre of the [[Italian resistance movement]]. On 7 November 1944, a pitched battle around [[Porta Lame, Bologna|Porta Lame]], waged by partisans of the 7th Brigade of the ''Gruppi d'Azione Patriottica'' against [[Italian Social Republic|Fascist]] and Nazi occupation forces, did not succeed in triggering a general uprising, despite being one of the largest resistance-led urban conflicts in the European theatre.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://certosa.cineca.it/2/eventi.php?TBL=EVENTI_STORICI&ID=21 |title=7 novembre 1944 – Battaglia di Porta Lame |author= |date= |work=Il Museo Virtuale della Certosa |publisher=Certosa.cineca.it |language=Italian |accessdate=2 May 2012}}</ref> Resistance forces entered Bologna on the morning of 21 April 1945. By this time, the Germans had already largely left the city in the face of the Allied advance, spearheaded by Polish forces advancing from the east during the [[Battle of Bologna]] which had been fought since 9 April. First to arrive in the centre was the 87th Infantry Regiment of the Friuli Combat Group under general [[Arturo Scattini]], who entered the centre from ''Porta Maggiore'' to the south. Since the soldiers were dressed in British outfits, they were initially thought to be part of the allied forces; when the local inhabitants heard the soldiers were speaking Italian, they poured out on to the streets to celebrate. |
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====Post-war years==== |
====Post-war years==== |
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[[File:Stragedibologna-2.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of the 1980 terrorist bombing.]] |
[[File:Stragedibologna-2.jpg|thumb|Aftermath of the 1980 terrorist bombing.]] |
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In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the [[Italian Communist Party]]. Between 1945 and 1999, the city had an uninterrupted series of left-wing [[List of mayors of Bologna#Democratic Mayors|mayors]], the first of whom was [[Giuseppe Dozza]]. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive [[gentrification]] and [[suburbanisation]], asked Japanese [[archistar]] [[Kenzo Tange]] to sketch a master plan for a [[new town]] north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as way too much ambitious and expensive.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Heath et |
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the [[Italian Communist Party]]. Between 1945 and 1999, the city had an uninterrupted series of left-wing [[List of mayors of Bologna#Democratic Mayors|mayors]], the first of whom was [[Giuseppe Dozza]]. At the end of the 1960s the city authorities, worried by massive [[gentrification]] and [[suburbanisation]], asked Japanese [[archistar]] [[Kenzo Tange]] to sketch a master plan for a [[new town]] north of Bologna; however, the project that came out in 1970 was evaluated as way too much ambitious and expensive.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Heath et al.|first1=Tim|title=Revitalizing historic urban quarters|date=2001|publisher=Architectural Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0750628907|page=107|edition=Reprinted.}}</ref> Eventually the city council, in spite of vetoing Tange's master plan, decided to keep his project for a [[Fiera District in Bologna, Italy|new exhibition centre and business district]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghirardo|first1=Diane Yvonne|title=Italy: Modern Architectures in History|date=2013|publisher=Reaktion|location=London|isbn=978-1861898647|page=283|edition=1. publ.}}</ref> At the end of 1978 the construction of a tower block and several diverse buildings and structures started.<ref>{{cite web|title="Chronology of Bologna: 1927" (in Italian)|url=http://www.bibliotecasalaborsa.it/cronologia/bologna/1978/929|website=www.bibliotecasalaborsa.it|publisher=[[Biblioteca Salaborsa|Salaborsa Library]]|accessdate=30 November 2017}}</ref> In 1985 the headquarters of the regional government of [[Emilia-Romagna]] moved in the new district.<ref>{{cite web|title="La Regione e la sua storia - le sedi della regione" (in Italian)|url=http://www.regione.emilia-romagna.it/storia/sedi|website=www.regione.emilia-romagna.it|publisher=Emilia-Romagna region|accessdate=1 December 2017}}</ref> |
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In 1977 Bologna was the scene of [[Movement of 1977#The riots|rioting]] linked to the [[Movement of 1977]], a spontaneous political movement of the time. The alleged police shooting of a [[far-left]] activist, [[Francesco Lorusso]], sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "[[Years of Lead (Italy)|years of lead]]", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the [[Bologna massacre]]. In 1995, members of the [[neo-fascist]] group [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari]] were convicted for carrying out the attack, while [[Licio Gelli]]—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge [[Propaganda Due|Propaganda Due (P2)]]—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service [[SISMI]] (including [[Francesco Pazienza]] and [[Pietro Musumeci]]). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square. |
In 1977 Bologna was the scene of [[Movement of 1977#The riots|rioting]] linked to the [[Movement of 1977]], a spontaneous political movement of the time. The alleged police shooting of a [[far-left]] activist, [[Francesco Lorusso]], sparked two days of street clashes. On 2 August 1980, at the height of the "[[Years of Lead (Italy)|years of lead]]", a terrorist bomb was set off in the central railway station of Bologna killing 85 people and wounding 200, an event which is known in Italy as the [[Bologna massacre]]. In 1995, members of the [[neo-fascist]] group [[Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari]] were convicted for carrying out the attack, while [[Licio Gelli]]—Grand Master of the underground Freemason lodge [[Propaganda Due|Propaganda Due (P2)]]—was convicted for hampering the investigation, together with three agents of the secret military intelligence service [[SISMI]] (including [[Francesco Pazienza]] and [[Pietro Musumeci]]). Commemorations take place in Bologna on 2 August each year, culminating in a concert in the main square. |
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* The volume, without the roofs, can be calculated as a sum of five cuboids, one single (the central nave) and two pairs (the aisles and the files of chapels). The sum each of the pairs can be calculated as one cuboid of double width. Knowing the height of the central nave and the width of the building, the measures of the sections can be calculated by measuring an orthograde photo of the facade. |
* The volume, without the roofs, can be calculated as a sum of five cuboids, one single (the central nave) and two pairs (the aisles and the files of chapels). The sum each of the pairs can be calculated as one cuboid of double width. Knowing the height of the central nave and the width of the building, the measures of the sections can be calculated by measuring an orthograde photo of the facade. |
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** Volume = (traverse section of the central nave [width = 22 m, height = 44.27 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two aisles [width = 20 m, height = 29.06 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two files of chapels [width = 18 m, height = 22.38 m]) x length of the building [132 m] |
** Volume = (traverse section of the central nave [width = 22 m, height = 44.27 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two aisles [width = 20 m, height = 29.06 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two files of chapels [width = 18 m, height = 22.38 m]) x length of the building [132 m] |
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** (973.94 + 581.2 + 402.84) x 132 = 1,957.98 x 132 = 258,453.36</ref> The Basilica of [[Santo Stefano, Bologna|Saint Stephen]] and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess [[Isis]]. The [[Basilica of San Domenico|Basilica of Saint Dominic]] is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese [[glossator]]s Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of [[San Francesco (Bologna)|St Francis]], [[Santa Maria dei Servi]] and [[San Giacomo Maggiore (Bologna)|San Giacomo Maggiore]] are other magnificent examples of 14th century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the [[Pala Bentivoglio|Bentivoglio Altarpiece]] by [[Lorenzo Costa the Elder|Lorenzo Costa]]. Finally, the Church of [[San Michele in Bosco]] is a 15th |
** (973.94 + 581.2 + 402.84) x 132 = 1,957.98 x 132 = 258,453.36</ref> The Basilica of [[Santo Stefano, Bologna|Saint Stephen]] and its sanctuary are among the oldest structures in Bologna, having been built starting from the 8th century, according to the tradition on the site of an ancient temple dedicated to Egyptian goddess [[Isis]]. The [[Basilica of San Domenico|Basilica of Saint Dominic]] is an example of Romanic architecture from the 13th century, enriched by the monumental tombs of great Bolognese [[glossator]]s Rolandino de'Passeggeri and Egidio Foscherari. Basilicas of [[San Francesco (Bologna)|St Francis]], [[Santa Maria dei Servi]] and [[San Giacomo Maggiore (Bologna)|San Giacomo Maggiore]] are other magnificent examples of 14th century architecture, the latter also featuring Renaissance artworks such as the [[Pala Bentivoglio|Bentivoglio Altarpiece]] by [[Lorenzo Costa the Elder|Lorenzo Costa]]. Finally, the Church of [[San Michele in Bosco]] is a 15th-century religious complex located on a hill not far from the city's historical cente. |
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[[File:Bologna Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|700px|View from the top of the Basilica di San Petronio. In center the dome of Santuario di Santa Maria della Vita, right – "Due Torri": Asinelli (higher) and Garisenda.]] |
[[File:Bologna Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|700px|View from the top of the Basilica di San Petronio. In center the dome of Santuario di Santa Maria della Vita, right – "Due Torri": Asinelli (higher) and Garisenda.]] |
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[[File:Unipol Tower 2.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Unipol Tower]], at 127 m, is the city's tallest building.]] |
[[File:Unipol Tower 2.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Unipol Tower]], at 127 m, is the city's tallest building.]] |
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In terms of total GDP, the [[Metropolitan City of Bologna]] generated a value of about 35 billion € (40.6 billion $) in 2014, equivalent to |
In terms of total GDP, the [[Metropolitan City of Bologna]] generated a value of about 35 billion € (40.6 billion $) in 2014, equivalent to €34,251 ($39,765) per capita, the third highest figure among Italian provinces (after [[Metropolitan City of Milan|Milan]] and [[Province of bolzano|Bolzano/Bozen]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Dossier on the Metropolitan City of Bologna|url=http://www.affariregionali.it/media/170175/dossier-citt%C3%A0-metropolitana-di-bologna.pdf|publisher=[[Istituto Nazionale di Statistica|Istat]]|accessdate=4 November 2017}}</ref> |
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The economy of Bologna is characterized by a flourishing industrial sector, traditionally |
The economy of Bologna is characterized by a flourishing industrial sector, traditionally centered on the transformation of agricultural and zootechnical products ([[Granarolo]], [[Segafredo Zanetti]], [[Conserve Italia]]), machinery ([[Coesia]], [[IMA (company)|IMA]]), energy ([[Hera Group]]), automotive ([[Ducati]], [[Lamborghini]]), footwear, textile, engineering, chemical, printing and publishing. The city has also a strong financial, insurance ([[Unipol]]) and retail ([[Coop Italia]], [[Conad]]) sector. |
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In particoular, Bologna is considered the centre of the so |
In particoular, Bologna is considered the centre of the so-called "packaging valley", an area well known for its high concentration of firms specialised in the manufacturing of automatic [[packaging machine]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fotis et al.|first1=Marco|title=The Automatic Packaging Machinery Sector in Italy and Germany|date=2014|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|isbn=978-3-319-12762-0|pages=1–2}}</ref> Furhermore, Bologna is well known for its dense network of [[cooperative]]s, a feature that dates back to the social struggles of farmers and workers in the 1800s and that today produces up to a third of its GDP<ref>{{cite news|last1=Duda|first1=John|title=The Italian Region Where Co-ops Produce a Third of Its GDP|url=http://www.yesmagazine.org/new-economy/the-italian-place-where-co-ops-drive-the-economy-and-most-people-are-members-20160705|accessdate=4 November 2017|publisher=[[Yes! (U.S. magazine)|YES! Magazine]]|date=July 5, 2016|language=en}}</ref> and occupies 265 thousand people in the Emilia-Romagna region.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Caselli|first1=Guido|title=Osservatorio della cooperazione in Emilia-Romagna|url=http://imprese.regione.emilia-romagna.it/industria-artigianato-cooperazione-servizi/doc/file/osservatorio-della-cooperazione-in-emilia-romagna|publisher=Chamber of Commerce of Emilia-Romagna|accessdate=4 November 2017}}</ref> |
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The city's [[Fiera District in Bologna, Italy|Fiera District]] exhibition centre is one of the largest in Europe, extending over 375,000 m2 of covered and outdoors areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Exhibition Centre|url=http://www.bolognafiere.it/pfiera/|website=bolognafiere.it|publisher=BiolognaFiere|accessdate=4 November 2017}}</ref> It hosts yearly international expos focused on the automobile sector ([[Bologna Motor Show]]), ceramics for the building industry (International Exhibition of Ceramic Tiles and Bathroom Furnishings) and food industry. Bologna is also a key railway and motorway hub in Italy, connecting the northern powerhouses of Lombardy and Venetia with Rome and the south. |
The city's [[Fiera District in Bologna, Italy|Fiera District]] exhibition centre is one of the largest in Europe, extending over 375,000 m2 of covered and outdoors areas.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Exhibition Centre|url=http://www.bolognafiere.it/pfiera/|website=bolognafiere.it|publisher=BiolognaFiere|accessdate=4 November 2017}}</ref> It hosts yearly international expos focused on the automobile sector ([[Bologna Motor Show]]), ceramics for the building industry (International Exhibition of Ceramic Tiles and Bathroom Furnishings) and food industry. Bologna is also a key railway and motorway hub in Italy, connecting the northern powerhouses of Lombardy and Venetia with Rome and the south. |
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[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] is the oldest academic institution of the world, founded in AD 1088.]] |
[[File:Archiginnasio ora blu Bologna.jpg|thumb|[[Bologna University]] is the oldest academic institution of the world, founded in AD 1088.]] |
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The [[University of Bologna]], conventionally said to have been founded in 1088 by [[glossator]]s [[Irnerius]] and [[Pepo (jurist)|Pepo]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rashdall|first1=Hastings|title=The universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge university press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1108018104|pages=119–121 |
The [[University of Bologna]], conventionally said to have been founded in 1088 by [[glossator]]s [[Irnerius]] and [[Pepo (jurist)|Pepo]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rashdall|first1=Hastings|title=The universities of Europe in the Middle Ages|date=2010|publisher=Cambridge university press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1108018104|pages=119–121}}</ref> is considered the oldest university in the world. It was an important centre of European intellectual life during the Middle Ages, attracting scholars from Italy and throughout Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ridder-Symoens|first1=editor Hilde de|title=A history of the university in Europe.|date=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521541138|page=12|edition=1st pbk.}}</ref> The Studium, as it was originally known, began as a loosely organized teaching system with each master collecting fees from students on an individual basis. The location of the early University was thus spread throughout the city, with various colleges being founded to support students of a specific nationality. |
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[[File:Archiginnasio-teatroanatomico.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Anatomical theatre of the Archiginnasio]], dating from 1637.]] |
[[File:Archiginnasio-teatroanatomico.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Anatomical theatre of the Archiginnasio]], dating from 1637.]] |
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Bologna is also home to private tertiary institutions, such as the [[The Johns Hopkins University SAIS Bologna Center|Bologna Center]] of [[Johns Hopkins University]] School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). SAIS Bologna was founded in 1955 as the first campus of a US post-graduate school to open in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unibo.it/en/international/agreements-and-networks/american-centres |title=American Centres — University of Bologna |website=Unibo.it |date= |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> It was inspired by Marshall Plan efforts to build a cultural bridge between America and Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001-2009.state.gov/p/us/rm/2005/46551.htm |title=Remarks at the 50th Anniversary of SAIS in Bologna |website=2001-2009.state.gov |date=19 May 2005 |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> Today, the Bologna Center also hosts the ''Associazione italo-americana "Luciano Finelli,"'' which supports cross-cultural awareness and exchange between Italy and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.italo-americana.org/wp/about-us/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=18 April 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121074742/http://www.italo-americana.org/wp/about-us/ |archivedate=21 January 2014}}</ref> |
Bologna is also home to private tertiary institutions, such as the [[The Johns Hopkins University SAIS Bologna Center|Bologna Center]] of [[Johns Hopkins University]] School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). SAIS Bologna was founded in 1955 as the first campus of a US post-graduate school to open in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unibo.it/en/international/agreements-and-networks/american-centres |title=American Centres — University of Bologna |website=Unibo.it |date= |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> It was inspired by Marshall Plan efforts to build a cultural bridge between America and Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://2001-2009.state.gov/p/us/rm/2005/46551.htm |title=Remarks at the 50th Anniversary of SAIS in Bologna |website=2001-2009.state.gov |date=19 May 2005 |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> Today, the Bologna Center also hosts the ''Associazione italo-americana "Luciano Finelli,"'' which supports cross-cultural awareness and exchange between Italy and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.italo-americana.org/wp/about-us/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=18 April 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140121074742/http://www.italo-americana.org/wp/about-us/ |archivedate=21 January 2014}}</ref> |
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In addition, Bologna hosts a [[music school]], [[Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini]], |
In addition, Bologna hosts a [[music school]], [[Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini]], established in 1804 and a [[art school]], [[Accademia di Belle Arti di Bologna]], founded in 1802. Both institutions were born as part of the reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte. |
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==Culture== |
==Culture== |
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Bologna hosts a number of international music, art, dance and film festivals, including Angelica <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaa-angelica.com/ |title=Angelica |publisher=Aaa-angelica.com |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> ''Bologna'' and ''Contemporanea'' (festivals on contemporary music),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognacontemporanea.it/ |title=Eventi Arte Contemporanea | Bologna contemporanea |website=Bolognacontemporanea.it |date= |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> Bolognafestival (international classical music festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognafestival.it |title=Bolonafestival |publisher=Bolognafestival.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> |
Bologna hosts a number of international music, art, dance and film festivals, including Angelica <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aaa-angelica.com/ |title=Angelica |publisher=Aaa-angelica.com |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> ''Bologna'' and ''Contemporanea'' (festivals on contemporary music),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognacontemporanea.it/ |title=Eventi Arte Contemporanea | Bologna contemporanea |website=Bolognacontemporanea.it |date= |accessdate=18 January 2016}}</ref> Bolognafestival (international classical music festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognafestival.it |title=Bolonafestival |publisher=Bolognafestival.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> |
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Bologna Jazz Festival,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognajazzfestival.it |title=BolognaJazzFestival |publisher=BolognaJazzFestival.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Biografilm Festival (a film festival devote to biographic movies),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biografilm.it |title=Biografilm Festival |language= it |publisher=Biografilm.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> BilBolBul (a comics festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilbolbul.net |title=BilBolBul |publisher=BilBolBul |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Danza Urbana (a street contemporary dance festival)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.danzaurbana.it |title=Danza Urbana |publisher=Danzaurbana.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> [[F.I.S.Co.|F.I.S.Co]](festival on contemporary art, now merged in [[Live Arts Week]]) Future Film Festival (animation and special effects),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.futurefilmfestival.org |title=futurefilmfestival |website=Futurefilmfestival.org |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref>''Il Cinema Ritrovato''(film festival about rare and forgotten movies),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinetecadibologna.it/vedere/festival |title=Il CInema Ritrovato |publisher=Cinetecadibologna.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> [[Live Arts Week]], Gender Bender (festival on gender identity, sexual orientation and body representation),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genderbender.it |title=Gender Bender |publisher=Genderbender.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Homework festival (electronic music |
Bologna Jazz Festival,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bolognajazzfestival.it |title=BolognaJazzFestival |publisher=BolognaJazzFestival.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Biografilm Festival (a film festival devote to biographic movies),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biografilm.it |title=Biografilm Festival |language= it |publisher=Biografilm.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> BilBolBul (a comics festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bilbolbul.net |title=BilBolBul |publisher=BilBolBul |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Danza Urbana (a street contemporary dance festival)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.danzaurbana.it |title=Danza Urbana |publisher=Danzaurbana.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> [[F.I.S.Co.|F.I.S.Co]](festival on contemporary art, now merged in [[Live Arts Week]]) Future Film Festival (animation and special effects),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.futurefilmfestival.org |title=futurefilmfestival |website=Futurefilmfestival.org |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref>''Il Cinema Ritrovato''(film festival about rare and forgotten movies),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinetecadibologna.it/vedere/festival |title=Il CInema Ritrovato |publisher=Cinetecadibologna.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> [[Live Arts Week]], Gender Bender (festival on gender identity, sexual orientation and body representation),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.genderbender.it |title=Gender Bender |publisher=Genderbender.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Homework festival (electronic music festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.homeworkfestival.net/ |title=homeworkfestival |publisher=homeworkfestival |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Human Rights Film Festival,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cinetecadibologna.it/vedere/festival |title=Human Rights Film Festival |publisher=Cinetecadibologna.it |date= |accessdate=19 April 2010}}</ref> Some Prefer cake (lesbian film festival),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.someprefercakefestival.com/index_en.htm |title=Archived copy |accessdate=19 August 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209111233/http://www.someprefercakefestival.com/index_en.htm |archivedate=9 February 2012}}</ref> [[Zecchino d'Oro]] (a children's song contest). |
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===Cuisine=== |
===Cuisine=== |
Revision as of 15:39, 10 December 2017
Bologna | |
---|---|
Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, Unipol Tower and the Two Towers | |
Flag | |
Nickname(s): The Learned One, the Fat One, the Red One | |
St. Petronius | |
Saint day | 4 October |
Website | Official website |
Bologna (
Of
"city of music".Bologna is an important agricultural, industrial, financial and transport hub, where many large mechanical, electronic and food companies have their headquarters as well as one of the largest permanent trade fairs in Europe. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index (E-REGI) of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city and the 47th European city in terms of its economic growth rate.[10] As a consequence, Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country: in 2011 it ranked 1st out of 107 Italian cities.[11]
History
Antiquity and Middle Ages
First settled around 1000 BCE and then founded as the
In 727-28, the city was sacked and captured by the
After the death of
During a campaign to support the imperial cities of Modena and Cremona against Bologna, Frederick II's son, King Enzo of Sardinia, was defeated and captured on 26 May 1249 at the Battle of Fossalta. Though the emperor demanded his release, Enzo was thenceforth kept a knightly prisoner in Bologna, in a palace that came to be named Palazzo Re Enzo after him. Every attempt to escape or to rescue him failed, and he died after more than 22 years in captivity.[20] After the death of his half-brothers Conrad IV in 1254, Frederick of Antioch in 1256 and Manfred in 1266, as well as the execution his nephew Conradin in 1268, he was the last of the Hohenstaufen heirs.
During the late 1200s, Bologna was affected by political instability when the most prominent families incessantly fought for the control of the town. The free commune was severely weakened by decades of infighting, allowing the Pope to impose the tyranny of his envoy cardinal Bertrand du Pouget in 1327. Du Pouget was eventually ousted by a popoular rebellion and Bologna became a signoria under Taddeo Pepoli in 1334.[21] By the arrival of the Black Death in 1348, Bologna had 40-50,000 inhabitants, reduced to just 20-25,000 after the plague.[22]
In 1350 Bologna was conquered by
Early modern
The period of Papal rule over Bologna has been generally evalued by historians as one of severe decline. However, this was not evident in the 1500s that were in fact marked by some major developements in Bologna. In 1530,
In the 17th century, the economy of Bologna started to show signs of severe decline as the global centres of trade shifted towards the Atlantic. During the
In the mid-1700s pope
The economic and demographic decline of Bologna became even more noticeable starting from the second half of the 18th century. In 1790 the city had 72,000 inhabitants, ranking as the second largest in the Papal States; however this figure had remained unchanged for decades. The economy was stagnant because of Papal policies that distorted trade with heavy custom dues and sold concessions of monopolies to single manufacturers thus lowering competition, depressing productivity and incentivising corruption.[30]
Late modern and contemporary
In 1796
In the last decades of the 19th century, Bologna once again thrived economically and socially. In 1863 Naples was linked to Rome by railway, and the following year Bologna to Florence.[32] Bolognese moderate agrarian elites, that supported liberal insurgencies against the papacy and were admirers of the British political system and of free trade, envisioned a unified national state that would open a bigger market for the massive agricultural production of the Emilian plains.[33] Indeed, Bologna gave Italy one of its first prime ministers, Marco Minghetti.
After
World War II
Bologna suffered extensive damage during World War II. The strategic importance of the city as an industrial and railway hub connecting northern and central Italy made it a strategic target for the Allied forces. On 24 July 1943, a massive aerial bombardment destroyed a significant part of the historic city centre and killed about 200 people. The main railway station and adjoining areas were severely hit, and 44% of the buildings in the centre were listed as having been destroyed or severely damaged. The city was heavily bombed again on 25 September. The raids, which this time were not confined to the city centre, left more than 1,000 people dead and thousands injured.[36]
After the
Post-war years
In the post-war years, Bologna became a thriving industrial centre as well as a political stronghold of the
In 1977 Bologna was the scene of
In 1999 the long tradition of left-wing mayors was interrupted by the victory of the independent candidate Giorgio Guazzaloca, who led a centre-right coalition; this brief experience ended in 2004 when
Geography
Territory
Bologna is situated on the edge of the
Climate
Bologna has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa, Trewartha: Do).
Annual precipitation oscillates between around 450 mm (18 in) and 900 mm (35 in),[43] with the majority generally falling in spring and autumn. Snow occasionally falls during winter and heavy snowfalls; the last major event was in November 2017.[44]
Climate data for Bologna (1971–2000, extremes 1946–present) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Record high °C (°F) | 20.7 (69.3) |
24.9 (76.8) |
27.0 (80.6) |
30.6 (87.1) |
34.9 (94.8) |
37.3 (99.1) |
39.6 (103.3) |
39.7 (103.5) |
34.8 (94.6) |
29.8 (85.6) |
24.0 (75.2) |
23.0 (73.4) |
39.7 (103.5) |
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) | 6.0 (42.8) |
9.0 (48.2) |
14.2 (57.6) |
17.7 (63.9) |
23.0 (73.4) |
27.1 (80.8) |
30.4 (86.7) |
29.8 (85.6) |
25.4 (77.7) |
18.6 (65.5) |
11.1 (52.0) |
6.8 (44.2) |
18.3 (64.9) |
Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.8 (37.0) |
5.0 (41.0) |
9.2 (48.6) |
12.5 (54.5) |
17.5 (63.5) |
21.4 (70.5) |
24.4 (75.9) |
24.1 (75.4) |
20.1 (68.2) |
14.4 (57.9) |
7.7 (45.9) |
3.6 (38.5) |
13.6 (56.5) |
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) | −0.5 (31.1) |
0.9 (33.6) |
4.1 (39.4) |
7.4 (45.3) |
12.0 (53.6) |
15.7 (60.3) |
18.5 (65.3) |
18.4 (65.1) |
14.8 (58.6) |
10.1 (50.2) |
4.3 (39.7) |
0.4 (32.7) |
8.8 (47.8) |
Record low °C (°F) | −18.8 (−1.8) |
−14.4 (6.1) |
−9.7 (14.5) |
−4.5 (23.9) |
0.8 (33.4) |
7.0 (44.6) |
9.0 (48.2) |
9.7 (49.5) |
4.5 (40.1) |
−1.8 (28.8) |
−9.0 (15.8) |
−13.4 (7.9) |
−18.8 (−1.8) |
Average precipitation mm (inches) | 34.0 (1.34) |
44.3 (1.74) |
54.2 (2.13) |
74.2 (2.92) |
58.0 (2.28) |
57.3 (2.26) |
40.5 (1.59) |
52.5 (2.07) |
67.5 (2.66) |
72.3 (2.85) |
68.0 (2.68) |
48.5 (1.91) |
671.3 (26.43) |
Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 5.9 | 5.6 | 7.1 | 8.2 | 8.1 | 6.1 | 4.2 | 5.2 | 5.4 | 7.1 | 6.4 | 5.8 | 75.1 |
Average relative humidity (%)
|
83 | 78 | 70 | 71 | 69 | 68 | 65 | 66 | 69 | 76 | 84 | 84 | 74 |
Mean monthly sunshine hours | 77.5 | 96.1 | 151.9 | 174.0 | 229.4 | 255.0 | 291.4 | 260.4 | 201.0 | 148.8 | 81.0 | 74.4 | 2,040.9 |
Source: Servizio Meteorologico (sun and humidity 1961–1990)[45][46][47] |
Government
Bologna City Council Consiglio Comunale di Bologna | |
---|---|
Leadership | |
Mayor | |
Structure | |
Seats | 32 |
Political groups | Majority (22)
|
Elections | |
5–19 June 2016 | |
Meeting place | |
Palazzo d'Accursio, Bologna | |
Website | |
Official website |
Municipal government
The legislative body of the
The municipality of Bologna is subdivided into six administrative Boroughs (Quartieri), down from the former nine before the 2015 administrative reform. Each Borough is governed by a Council (Consiglio) and a President, elected contextually to the city Mayor. The urban organization is governed by the Italian Constitution (art. 114). The Boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition they are supplied with an autonomous founding in order to finance local activities.
Provincial and regional government
Bologna is the capital of the eponymous
According to the last governmental dispositions concerning administrative reorganisation, the urban area of Bologna is one of the 15
The Metropolitan City of Bologna is headed by the Metropolitan Mayor (Sindaco metropolitano) and by the Metropolitan Council (Consiglio metropolitano). Since 21 June 2016 Virginio Merola, as mayor of the capital city, has been the mayor of the Metropolitan City.
Cityscape
- For a complete list, see Buildings and structures in Bologna.
Until the late 19th century, when a large-scale urban renewal project was undertaken, Bologna was one of the few remaining large walled cities in Europe; to this day and despite having suffered considerable bombing damage in 1944, Bologna's 350 acres (141.64 ha) historic centre is Europe's second largest,[53] containing an immense wealth of important medieval, renaissance, and baroque artistic monuments.
Bologna developed along the
The cityscape is further enriched by its elegant and extensive porticoes, for which the city is famous. In total, there are some 38 kilometres (24 miles) of porticoes in the city's historical centre[55] (over 45 km (28 mi) in the city proper), which make it possible to walk for long distances sheltered from the elements.
The Portico di San Luca is possibly the world's longest.
Economy
In terms of total GDP, the
The economy of Bologna is characterized by a flourishing industrial sector, traditionally centered on the transformation of agricultural and zootechnical products (
In particoular, Bologna is considered the centre of the so-called "packaging valley", an area well known for its high concentration of firms specialised in the manufacturing of automatic
The city's
Transport
Bologna is home to the
A large commuter rail service is currently under development (see Bologna metropolitan railway service).
Bologna Public Transportation Statistics
The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Bologna, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 53 min. 9% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 12 min, while 16% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 5.4 km, while 7% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.[66]
Demographics
At the end of 2016, the city proper had a population of 388,254 (while 1 million live in the greater Bologna area), located in the province of Bologna,
As of 2009[update], 89.47% of the population was
Education
The University of Bologna, conventionally said to have been founded in 1088 by glossators Irnerius and Pepo,[69] is considered the oldest university in the world. It was an important centre of European intellectual life during the Middle Ages, attracting scholars from Italy and throughout Europe.[70] The Studium, as it was originally known, began as a loosely organized teaching system with each master collecting fees from students on an individual basis. The location of the early University was thus spread throughout the city, with various colleges being founded to support students of a specific nationality.
In the Napoleonic era, the headquarters of the university were moved to their present location on
Bologna is also home to private tertiary institutions, such as the
In addition, Bologna hosts a music school, Conservatorio Giovanni Battista Martini, established in 1804 and a art school, Accademia di Belle Arti di Bologna, founded in 1802. Both institutions were born as part of the reforms introduced by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Culture
Over the centuries, Bologna has acquired many nicknames: "the learned one" (la dotta) is a reference to its university; "the fat one" (la grassa) refers to its cuisine; "the red one" (la rossa), originally referring to the colour of the roofs in the historic centre, became later connected to the political leanings of the city, in particoular after World War II: until the election of a centre-right mayor in 1999, the city was renowned as a bastion of the Italian Communist Party.[75] The centre-left regained power again in the 2004 mayoral elections, with the election of Sergio Cofferati. It was one of the first European cities to experiment with the concept of free public transport.[76]
The city of Bologna became a UNESCO City of Music on 26 May 2006. According to UNESCO, "As the first Italian city to be appointed to the Network, Bologna has demonstrated a rich musical tradition that is continuing to evolve as a vibrant factor of contemporary life and creation. It has also shown a strong commitment to promoting music as an important vehicle for inclusion in the fight against racism and in an effort to encourage economic and social development. Fostering a wide range of genres from classical to electronic, jazz, folk and opera, Bologna offers its citizens a musical vitality that deeply infiltrates the city's professional, academic, social and cultural facets."[77]
Entertainment and performing arts
The
Bologna hosts a number of international music, art, dance and film festivals, including Angelica [78] Bologna and Contemporanea (festivals on contemporary music),[79] Bolognafestival (international classical music festival),[80] Bologna Jazz Festival,[81] Biografilm Festival (a film festival devote to biographic movies),[82] BilBolBul (a comics festival),[83] Danza Urbana (a street contemporary dance festival)[84] F.I.S.Co(festival on contemporary art, now merged in Live Arts Week) Future Film Festival (animation and special effects),[85]Il Cinema Ritrovato(film festival about rare and forgotten movies),[86] Live Arts Week, Gender Bender (festival on gender identity, sexual orientation and body representation),[87] Homework festival (electronic music festival),[88] Human Rights Film Festival,[89] Some Prefer cake (lesbian film festival),[90] Zecchino d'Oro (a children's song contest).
Cuisine
Bologna is renowned for its culinary tradition. It has baptised the famous
Sport
A sporting nickname for Bologna is Basket City in reference to the successes of the town's two rival historic
People
- Ulisse Aldrovandi (naturalist, 1522–1605)
- Antonio Alessandrini (anatomist and parasitologist, 1786–1861)
- Maria Gaetana Agnesi (mathematician, humanitarian, and linguist, 1718–1799)
- Amico Aspertini (painter, c. 1474–1552)
- Pupi Avati (director, born 1938)
- Riccardo Bacchelli (writer, 1891–1985)
- Adriano Banchieri (composer, 1568–1634)
- Agostino Barelli (architect, 1627–1687)
- Antonio Basoli (painter and scene designer, 1774–1848)
- Laura Bassi (scientist, first female appointed to university chair in Europe, 1711–1788)
- Ugo Bassi (Italian nationalist hero, executed for role in 1848 uprisings, 1800–1849)
- quadratura, 17th-century)
- Stefano Benni (writer, born 1947)
- Benedict XIV(Prospero Lambertini, Pope 1740–58)
- Giovanni II Bentivoglio (1443–1508)
- Giordano Berti (writer, born 1959)
- Bologna FC)
- Cristina D'Avena (actress and singer, born 1964)
- Francesco Ricci Bitti, Italian sports administrator
- Simone Bolelli (professional tennis player, born 1985)
- Giacomo Bolognini (painter, 1664–1734)
- Rafael Bombelli (mathematician, 1526–1572)
- Rossano Brazzi (actor, 1916–1994)
- Floriano Buroni (engraver, 17th-century)
- Raffaella Carrà (singer, born 1943)
- Annibale Carracci (painter, 1560–1609)
- Lodovico Carracci(painter, 1555–1619)
- Agostino Carracci (painter, 1557–1602)
- Chiara Caselli (actress, born 1967)
- Pier Ferdinando Casini (politician, born 1955)
- Pietro Cataldi (mathematician, 1548–1626)
- Pierluigi Collina (football referee, born 1960)
- Carlo Colombara (operatic bass, born 1964)
- Giovanni Paolo Colonna (composer, 1637–1695)
- Alessandro Cortini (musician, born 1976)
- Cesare Cremonini (songwriter, 1980)
- Giuseppe Maria Crespi (painter, 1665–1747)
- Donato Creti (painter, 1671–1749)
- cantastorieand writer, 1550–1609)
- Scipione del Ferro (mathematician, solved the cubic equation, 1465–1526)
- Francesco Francia(Francesco Raibolini, painter, c. 1450–1517)
- Lucio Dalla (singer-songwriter, 1943–2012)
- Domenichino (Domenico Zampieri, painter, 1581–1641)
- Roman Catholicaristocrat, 1472–1520)
- Sara Errani (tennis player, born 1987)
- Gianfranco Fini (politician, born 1952)
- Aristotile Fioravanti(architect, c. 1415–c. 1486)
- bioelectricity, 1737–1798)
- Alessandro Gamberini, (footballer, born 1981)
- Serena Grandi (actress, born 1958)
- Gregorian Calendar)
- Gregory XV(Alessandro Ludovisi, Pope 1621–3)
- Il Guercino(Giovanni Barbieri, painter, 1591–1666)
- Irnerius (jurist, c. 1050–at least 1125)
- Blessed Imelda Lambertini (Dominican novice, Eucharistic mystic, and child saint, c. 1322–1333)
- Claudio Lolli (singer-songwriter, born 1950)
- Lucius II(Gherardo Caccianemici dell'Orso, Pope 1144–5)
- Marcello Malpighi (physiologist, anatomist and histologist, 1628–1694)
- Guglielmo Marconi (engineer, pioneer of wireless telegraphy, Nobel prize for Physics, 1874–1937)
- Giovanni Battista Martini (musical theorist, 1706–1784)
- Giuseppe Mezzofanti(cardinal, linguist and hyperpolyglot, 1774–1839)
- Marco Minghetti (economist and statesman, 1818–1886)
- Giorgio Morandi (painter, 1890–1964)
- Gianni Morandi (singer, born 1944)
- Ludovico Morbioli (Catholic layman, declared Blessed, 1433–1485)
- Risorgimento, 1851–1940)
- Gianluca Pagliuca (footballer, born 1966)
- Pier Paolo Pasolini (writer, poet, director, 1922–1975)
- Roberto Regazzi (luthier, born 1956)
- Guido Reni (painter, 1575–1642)
- Ottorino Respighi (composer, 1879–1936)
- Augusto Righi (physicist, authority on electromagnetism, 1850–1920)
- Carlo Ruini (equine anatomist, 1530–1598)
- Bologna)
- Elisabetta Sirani (painter, 1638–1665)
- Alberto Tomba (skier, born 1966)
- Ondina Valla (first Italian woman Olympic gold medalist, 1916–2006)
- Piccolo Coro dell' Antonianochoir, 1939–1995)
- Christian Vieri (footballer, born 1973)
- Vitale da Bologna (painter, fl. 1330, d. 1361)
- Anteo Zamboni(anarchist who at the age of 15 attempted to assassinate Benito Mussolini, 1911–1926)
- Alex Zanardi (racing driver, born 1966)
- Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti (writer, musician, and composer, 1801–1878)
- Alessandro Carloni (director, animator, artist who worked on films like Kung Fu Panda and The Croods, born 1978)
In addition to the natives of the city listed above, the following have made Bologna their home:
- Giosuè Carducci (poet and academic, Nobel Prize for Literature, born near Lucca, Tuscany, 1835–1907)
- Carlo Felice Cillario (Italian conductor of international renown, founder of the Bologna Chamber Orchestra in 1946 (7 February 1915 – 13 December 2007)
- Umberto Eco (writer and academic, born in Alessandria, Piedmont, 1932–2016)
- Enzio of Sardinia (born c. 1218, King of Sardinia and illegitimate son of Emperor Frederick II, was imprisoned in Palazzo Re Enzofrom 1249 until his death in 1272)
- Vasco Errani (politician, born 1955)
- William Girometti (painter, born in Milan, 1924-1998)
- Alfonso Lombardi (sculptor, born in Ferrara, c. 1497–1537)
- Niccolò dell'Arca (sculptor, born in Bari, c. 1435/1440–2 March 1494)
- Juan Ignacio Molina (naturalist, born in Chile, 1740–1829)
- Giovanni Pascoli (poet and academic, born in San Mauro di Romagna, 1855–1912)
- St. Petronius (San Petronio, bishop of Bolognaand patron saint of the city, birthplace unknown, died c. 450 AD)
- Romano Prodi (economist, politician, born in Scandiano, Reggio Emilia, 1939)
- Gioachino Rossini (opera composer, born in Pesaro, 1792–1868)
- Giuseppe Torelli (composer, born in Verona, 1658–1709)
- Wu Ming (collective of writers, active since 2000)
- Farinelli (Carlo Broschi, castrato opera singer, 1705–1782)
Companies
- COESIA Group – G.D (packaging)[98]
- CIBO- Culinary Institute of Bologna – (Culinary-Cooking School))[99]
- Coop (supermarket chain)
- Ducati Motor Holding(motorcycles)
- IMA S.p.A (packaging)
- Lamborghini (cars)
- Malaguti (motorcycles)
- Maserati (cars)
- Segafredo Zanetti– (coffee)
- Unipol – (bank and insurance)
- YOOX Group Spa– (Fashion / Online Apparel Retailer)
International relations
This section needs additional citations for verification. (March 2017) |
Bologna is
|
See also
- Bologna declaration
- Bologna metropolitan area
- Bologna Process
- Bolognese bell ringing art
- List of tallest buildings in Bologna
References
- ^ "ISTAT, Rapporto UrBes 2015 Bologna" (PDF). istat.it. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
- ^ "La popolazione di Bologna al 29 febbraio 2016". Comune.bologna.it. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
- ^ Romy Grieco, Bologna: a city to discover(1976) pp 8-12, 138-45.
- ^ Top Universities Archived 17 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine World University Rankings Retrieved 6 January 2010
- ^ Our History – Università di Bologna
- ISBN 1-57922-366-4. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
- ^ ISBN 0-7864-3462-7, p. 55f.
- ^ ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. 47–55
- ^ "Bologna history – Bologna culture – Bologna – attractions in Bologna – art Bologna – history guide Bologna". Travelplan.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "European growth cities". City Mayors. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
- ^ "Qualità della vita". Il Sole 24 ORE. Retrieved 5 December 2011.
- )
- ^ Butler, Alban (1814). The Lives Of The Fathers, Martyrs, And Other Principal Saints. London: John Murphy.
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requires|url=
(help) - ISBN 978-8816403741.
- ISBN 978-0415939294.
- ISBN 978-1138864955.)
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link - ^ Nove secoli di storia – Università di Bologna
- ^ Nancy G. Siraisi, Taddeo Alderotti and his pupils: two generations of italian medical learning (Princeton University Press, 1981).
- ISBN 978-0786434626.
- ISBN 978-0674030336.
- ^ ISBN 978-0520021815.
- ISBN 9004176349.
- ^ Raimond Van Marle. The Development of the Italian Schools of Painting, Volume 4 (1924) pp 394-481.
- ISBN 978-0415214346.
- )
- ISBN 978-0521893787.
- ISBN 978-0521893787.
- ISBN 978-0582087477.
- )
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- ISBN 9780691641409.
- ISBN 9780691641409.
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- ^ "7 novembre 1944 – Battaglia di Porta Lame". Il Museo Virtuale della Certosa (in Italian). Certosa.cineca.it. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
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- ISBN 978-1861898647.
- ^ ""Chronology of Bologna: 1927" (in Italian)". www.bibliotecasalaborsa.it. Salaborsa Library. Retrieved 30 November 2017.
- ^ ""La Regione e la sua storia - le sedi della regione" (in Italian)". www.regione.emilia-romagna.it. Emilia-Romagna region. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
- ^ See Virginio Merola. "Benvenuti a Bologna - Welcome to Bologna" Oct 18, 2016
- ^ "Dati statistici temperature e precipitazioni dal 1991 al 2009". comune.bologna.it. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
- ^ "Febbraio 2012, ma quanta neve è caduta?" (PDF). ARPA Emilia-Romagna. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
- ^ "Bologna/Borgo Panigale (BO)" (PDF). Atlante climatico. Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- ^ "STAZIONE 140 BOLOGNA: medie mensili periodo 61 – 90". Servizio Meteorologico. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
- ^ "Bologna Borgo Panigale: Record mensili dal 1946" (in Italian). Servizio Meteorologico dell’Aeronautica Militare. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
- ^ tpel=G&dtel=15/05/2011&tpa=I&tpe=C&lev0=0&levsut0=0&lev1=8&levsut1=1&lev2=13&levsut2=2&lev3=60&levsut3=3&ne1=8&ne2=13&ne3=130060&es0=S&es1=S&es2=S&es3=N&ms=S Elezioni 2011, Ministero dell'Interno.
- ^ Ballottaggio 2016, Merola confermato sindaco
- Istat. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "Spending Review Act". Italian Government. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Vittorio Ferri (2009). "Metropolitan cities in Italy. An institution of federalism" (PDF). University of Milan-Bicocca. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
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: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)[dead link] - ^ National League of Cities, American Municipal Association (1976). Nation's cities, Volume 14. United States: National League of Cities.
- ^ "The Two Towers: Garisenda e degli Asinelli". artcityemiliaromagna.com. Official tourism promotion website of Emilia-Romagna region. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ a b "The Porticoes of Bologna" (World Heritage Site submission). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1 June 2006. Retrieved 29 June 2012.
- ^ Caird, Joe (16 January 2009). "Bologna city guide: top five sights". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ data from http://www.bolognawelcome.com, Basilica di San Petronio plus calculations as follows:
- San Petronio de Bologna: The footplan of the building is a simple rectangle
- Area = length of the building x width of the building = 132 m x 60 m
- The volume, without the roofs, can be calculated as a sum of five cuboids, one single (the central nave) and two pairs (the aisles and the files of chapels). The sum each of the pairs can be calculated as one cuboid of double width. Knowing the height of the central nave and the width of the building, the measures of the sections can be calculated by measuring an orthograde photo of the facade.
- Volume = (traverse section of the central nave [width = 22 m, height = 44.27 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two aisles [width = 20 m, height = 29.06 m] + sum of the traverse sections of the two files of chapels [width = 18 m, height = 22.38 m]) x length of the building [132 m]
- (973.94 + 581.2 + 402.84) x 132 = 1,957.98 x 132 = 258,453.36
- San Petronio de Bologna: The footplan of the building is a simple rectangle
- Istat. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- )
- ^ Duda, John (5 July 2016). "The Italian Region Where Co-ops Produce a Third of Its GDP". YES! Magazine. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ Caselli, Guido. "Osservatorio della cooperazione in Emilia-Romagna". Chamber of Commerce of Emilia-Romagna. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "The Exhibition Centre". bolognafiere.it. BiolognaFiere. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ summer 2004
- ^ "Bologna Centrale". Grandi Stazioni. Retrieved 30 December 2011.
- ^ "The Bologna Freight Village" (PDF). Bologna Interporto S.p.a. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Bologna Public Transportation Statistics". Global Public Transit Index by Moovit. Retrieved 19 June 2017. Material was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
- ^ "istat". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "istat". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ISBN 978-1108018104.
- )
- ^ "THE UNIVERSITY TODAY: NUMBERS AND INNOVATION". University of Bologna. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "American Centres — University of Bologna". Unibo.it. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
- ^ "Remarks at the 50th Anniversary of SAIS in Bologna". 2001-2009.state.gov. 19 May 2005. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 January 2014. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
{{cite web}}
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "The red, the fat, and the learned: The story behind Bologna's curious nicknames". The Local. 10 May 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
- ^ "Repertoires of Democracy: The Case for Public Transport" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "The Creative Cities Network: UNESCO Culture Sector". Portal.unesco.org. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Angelica". Aaa-angelica.com. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Eventi Arte Contemporanea | Bologna contemporanea". Bolognacontemporanea.it. Retrieved 18 January 2016.
- ^ "Bolonafestival". Bolognafestival.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "BolognaJazzFestival". BolognaJazzFestival.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Biografilm Festival" (in Italian). Biografilm.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "BilBolBul". BilBolBul. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Danza Urbana". Danzaurbana.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "futurefilmfestival". Futurefilmfestival.org. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Il CInema Ritrovato". Cinetecadibologna.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Gender Bender". Genderbender.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "homeworkfestival". homeworkfestival. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Human Rights Film Festival". Cinetecadibologna.it. Retrieved 19 April 2010.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Cesarato, Monica (14 September 2016). "Why you won't find spaghetti bolognese in Italy". The Local. Retrieved 5 November 2017.
- ISBN 978-1860119774.
- ASIN B002H6TK9C.
- ISBN 978-1860119774.
- ISBN 978-1860119774.
- ISBN 978-0-446-67989-3.
- ^ Zanasi, Gianni (6 March 2009). "Rugby Bologna 1928 : quale futuro?" [What Future for Rugby Bologna 1928?]. air.it (in Italian). Associazione Italiana Rugbysti. Archived from the original on 5 November 2014. Retrieved 5 November 2014.
- ^ "Coesia Group". Coesia.com. 26 October 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ^ http://cookingclassesinbologna.com/. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
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(help) - ^ Griffin, Mary (2 August 2011). "Coventry's twin towns". Coventry Telegraph. Archived from the original on 6 August 2013. Retrieved 9 May 2017.
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: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
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suggested) (help) - ^ "Coventry – Twin towns and cities". Coventry City Council. Archived from the original on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
- ^ "Leipzig – Twin Cities". © 2015 Leipzig City Council, Office for European and International Affairs. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
- ^ "Ciudades Hermanadas con València" [Valencia Twin/Sister Cities]. Ajuntament de València [City of Valencia] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
- ^ "Intercity and International Cooperation of the City of Zagreb". © 2006–2009 City of Zagreb. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
Further reading
- Mancini, Giorgia, and Nicholas Penny, eds. The Sixteenth Century Italian Paintings: Volume III: Ferrara and Bologna (National Gallery Catalogues) (2016).
- Rashdall, Hastings. The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages: Volume 1, Salerno, Bologna, Paris (2010).
- Robertson, Anne Walters. Tyranny under the Mantle of St Peter: Pope Paul II and Bologna (2002)
Guide books
- Grieco, Romy. Bologna: a city to discover(1976)
- Insight Guides. Pocket Bologna (2016).
- Noyes, Mary Tolaro. Bologna Reflections (2009).
Older guides
- "Bologna", Italy (2nd ed.), Coblenz: Karl Baedeker, 1870
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- T. Francis Bumpus (1900), "Ferrara and Bologna", The Cathedrals and Churches of Northern Italy, London: Laurie
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