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Far-right politics
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Far-right politics, also referred to as the extreme right or right-wing extremism, are politics further on the right of the
Historically used to describe the experiences of
Far-right politics have led to
Overview
Concept and worldview
The core of the far right's worldview is
As they view their community in a state of decay facilitated by the ruling elites, far-right members portray themselves as a natural, sane and alternative elite, with the redemptive mission of saving society from its promised doom. They reject both their national political system and the global geopolitical order (including their institutions and values, e.g.
Political scientist
Definition and comparative analysis
The Encyclopedia of Politics: The Left and the Right states that far-right politics include "persons or groups who hold extreme nationalist, xenophobic, racist, religious fundamentalist, or other reactionary views." While the term far right is typically applied to
According to political scientist Lubomír Kopeček, "[t]he best working definition of the contemporary far right may be the four-element combination of nationalism, xenophobia, law and order, and welfare chauvinism proposed for the Western European environment by Cas Mudde."
In western Europe, far right parties have been associated with anti-immigrant policies, as well as globalism and European integration. They often make nationalist and xenophobic appeals which make allusions to Ethnic nationalism rather than Civic nationalism (aka liberal nationalism). Some have at their core illiberal policies such as removing checks on checks on executive authority and protections for minorities from majority (multipluralism). In the 1990s, the "winning formula" was often to attract anti-immigrant blue collar workers and white collar workers who wanted less state intervention in the economy, but in the 2000s, this switched to welfare chauvinism. [14]
In comparing the Western European and
Jodi Dean argues that "the rise of far-right anti-communism in many parts of the world" should be interpreted "as a politics of fear, which utilizes the disaffection and anger generated by capitalism. [...] Partisans of far right-wing organizations, in turn, use anti-communism to challenge every political current which is not embedded in a clearly exposed nationalist and racist agenda. For them, both the USSR and the European Union, leftist liberals, ecologists, and supranational corporations—all of these may be called 'communist' for the sake of their expediency."[16]
In Hate in the Homeland: The New Global Far Right, Cynthia Miller-Idriss examines the far-right as a global movement and representing a cluster of overlapping "antidemocratic, antiegalitarian, white supremacist" beliefs that are "embedded in solutions like authoritarianism, ethnic cleansing or ethnic migration, and the establishment of separate ethno-states or enclaves along racial and ethnic lines".[17]
Modern debates
Terminology
According to
One issue is whether parties should be labelled radical or extreme, a distinction that is made by the
After a survey of the academic literature, Mudde concluded in 2002 that the terms "right-wing extremism", "right-wing populism", "national populism", or "neo-populism" were often used as synonyms by scholars, in any case with "striking similarities", except notably among a few authors studying the extremist-theoretical tradition.[nb 2]
Relation to right-wing politics
Italian philosopher and political scientist Norberto Bobbio argues that attitudes towards equality are primarily what distinguish left-wing politics from right-wing politics on the political spectrum:[22] "the left considers the key inequalities between people to be artificial and negative, which should be overcome by an active state, whereas the right believes that inequalities between people are natural and positive, and should be either defended or left alone by the state."[23]
Aspects of far-right ideology can be identified in the agenda of some contemporary right-wing parties: in particular, the idea that superior persons should dominate society while undesirable elements should be purged, which in extreme cases has resulted in
Proponents of the
Nature of support
The rise of far-right parties has also been viewed as a rejection of
Early academic studies adopted psychoanalytical explanations for the far right's support. The 1933 publication The Mass Psychology of Fascism by Wilhelm Reich argued the theory that fascists came to power in Germany as a result of sexual repression. For some far-right parties in Western Europe, the issue of immigration has become the dominant issue among them, so much so that some scholars refer to these parties as "anti-immigrant" parties.[38]
Intellectual history
Background
The French Revolution in 1789 created a major shift in political thought by challenging the established ideas supporting hierarchy with new ones about universal equality and freedom.[39] The modern left–right political spectrum also emerged during this period. Democrats and proponents of universal suffrage were located on the left side of the elected French Assembly, while monarchists seated farthest to the right.[18]
The strongest opponents of liberalism and democracy during the 19th century, such as Joseph de Maistre and Friedrich Nietzsche, were highly critical of the French Revolution.[39] Those who advocated a return to the absolute monarchy during the 19th century called themselves "ultra-monarchists" and embraced a "mystic" and "providentialist" vision of the world where royal dynasties were seen as the "repositories of divine will". The opposition to liberal modernity was based on the belief that hierarchy and rootedness are more important than equality and liberty, with the latter two being dehumanizing.[40]
Emergence
In the French public debate following the
As the concept of "the masses" was introduced into the political debate through
Völkisch and revolutionary right
The
Translated in Maurice Barrès' concept of "the earth and the dead", these ideas influenced the pre-fascist "revolutionary right" across Europe. The latter had its origin in the fin de siècle intellectual crisis and it was, in the words of Fritz Stern, the deep "cultural despair" of thinkers feeling uprooted within the rationalism and scientism of the modern world.[49] It was characterized by a rejection of the established social order, with revolutionary tendencies and anti-capitalist stances, a populist and plebiscitary dimension, the advocacy of violence as a means of action and a call for individual and collective palingenesis ("regeneration, rebirth").[50]
Contemporary thought
The key thinkers of contemporary far-right politics are claimed by
In a 1961 book deemed influential in the European far-right at large, French neo-fascist writer Maurice Bardèche introduced the idea that fascism could survive the 20th century under a new metapolitical guise adapted to the changes of the times. Rather than trying to revive doomed regimes with their single party, secret police or public display of Caesarism, Bardèche argued that its theorists should promote the core philosophical idea of fascism regardless of its framework,[6] i.e. the concept that only a minority, "the physically saner, the morally purer, the most conscious of national interest", can represent best the community and serve the less gifted in what Bardèche calls a new "feudal contract".[52]
Another influence on contemporary far-right thought has been the
Regarding Latin America, Dr. Rene Leal of the University of Santiago, Chile notes that the oppressive exploitation of labor under neoliberal governments in the region precipitated the growth of far-right politics in the region.[54]
International organizations
During the rise of Nazi Germany, far-right international organizations began to emerge in the 1930s with the
Following World War II, other far-right organizations attempted to establish themselves, such as the European organizations of
With the founding of the European Union in 1993, far-right groups began to espouse Euroscepticism, nationalist and anti-migrant beliefs.[55] By 2010, the Eurosceptic group European Alliance for Freedom emerged and saw some prominence during the 2014 European Parliament election.[55][58] The majority of far-right groups in the 2010s began to establish international contacts with right-wing coalitions to develop a solidified platform.[55] In 2017, Steve Bannon would create The Movement, an organization to create an international far-right group based on Aleksandr Dugin's The Fourth Political Theory, for the 2019 European Parliament election.[59][60] The European Alliance for Freedom would also reorganize into Identity and Democracy for the 2019 European Parliament election.[58]
The far-right Spanish party
Nationalists from Europe and the United States met at a Holiday Inn in St. Petersburg on March 22, 2015 for first convention of the International Russian Conservative Forum organized by pro-Putin Rodina-party. The event was attended by frige right-wing extremists like Nordic Resistance Movement from Scandinavia but also by more mainstream MEPs from Golden Dawn and National Democratic Party of Germany. In addition to Rodina, Russian neo-Nazis from Russian Imperial Movement and Rusich Group were also in attendance. From the US the event was attended by Jared Taylor and Brandon Russell.[66][67][68][69][70]
History by country
Africa
Rwanda
A number of far-right extremist and paramilitary groups carried out the
Interahamwe
The Interahamwe was formed around 1990 as the
Coalition for the Defence of the Republic
Other far-right groups and paramilitaries involved included the
South Africa
Herstigte Nasionale Party
The far right in South Africa emerged as the Herstigte Nasionale Party (HNP) in 1969, formed by
Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
In 1973,
Togo
Togo has been ruled by members of the Gnassingbé family and the far-right military dictatorship formerly known as the Rally of the Togolese People since 1969. Despite the legalisation of political parties in 1991 and the ratification of a democratic constitution in 1992, the regime continues to be regarded as oppressive. In 1993, the European Union cut off aid in reaction to the regime's human-rights offenses. After's Eyadema's death in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbe took over, then stood down and was re-elected in elections that were widely described as fraudulent and occasioned violence that resulted in as many as 600 deaths and the flight from Togo of 40,000 refugees.[88] In 2012, Faure Gnassingbe dissolved the RTP and created the Union for the Republic.[89][90][91]
Throughout the reign of the Gnassingbé family, Togo has been extremely oppressive. According to a
Americas
Brazil
During the 1920s and 1930s, a local brand of religious fascism appeared known as Brazilian Integralism, coalescing around the party known as Brazilian Integralist Action. It adopted many characteristics of European fascist movements, including a green-shirted paramilitary organization with uniformed ranks, highly regimented street demonstrations and rhetoric against Marxism and liberalism.[93]
Prior to World War II, the Nazi Party had been making and distributing propaganda among ethnic Germans in Brazil. The Nazi regime built close ties with Brazil through the estimated 100 thousand native Germans and 1 million German descendants living in Brazil at the time.[94] In 1928, the Brazilian section of the Nazi Party was founded in Timbó, Santa Catarina. This section reached 2,822 members and was the largest section of the Nazi Party outside Germany.[95][96] About 100 thousand born Germans and about one million descendants lived in Brazil at that time.[97]
After Germany's defeat in World War II, many Nazi war criminals fled to Brazil and hid among the German-Brazilian communities. The most notable example of this was
The far right has continued to operate throughout Brazil
Central American death squads
In Guatemala, the far-right
Mano Blanca, otherwise known as the Movement of Organized Nationalist Action, was set up in 1966 as a front for the MLN to carry out its more violent activities,
Armed with the support and coordination of the Guatemalan Armed Forces, Mano Blanca began a campaign described by the United States Department of State as one of "kidnappings, torture, and summary execution."[109] One of the main targets of Mano Blanca was the Revolutionary Party, an anti-communist group that was the only major reform oriented party allowed to operate under the military-dominated regime. Other targets included the banned leftist parties.[109] Human rights activist Blase Bonpane described the activities of Mano Blanca as being an integral part of the policy of the Guatemalan government and by extension the policy of the United States government and the Central Intelligence Agency.[107][112] Overall, Mano Blanca was responsible for thousands of murders and kidnappings, leading travel writer Paul Theroux to refer to them as "Guatemala's version of a volunteer Gestapo unit".[113]
Chile
The National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNSCH) was created in the 1930s with the funding from the German population in Chile.[114] In 1938, the MNSCH was dissolved after it attempted a coup and recreated itself as the Popular Freedom Alliance party, later merging with the Agrarian Party to create the Agrarian Labor Party (PAL).[115] PAL would go through various mergers to become the Partido Nacional Popular (Chile), then National Action and finally the National Party.
Following the fall of Nazi Germany, many Nazis fled to Chile.
Following the end of Pinochet's government, the National Party would split to become the more centrist National Renewal (RN), while individuals who supported Pinochet organized Independent Democratic Union (UDI). UDI is a far-right political party that was formed by former Pinochet officials.[121][122][123][124] In 2019, the far-right Republican Party was founded by José Antonio Kast, a UDI politician who believed his former party criticized Pinochet too often.[125][126][127][128] According to Cox and Blanco, the Republican Party appeared in Chilean politics in a similar manner to Spain's Vox party, with both parties splitting off from an existing right wing party to collect disillusioned voters.[129]
Death squads in El Salvador
During the
El Salvadorian death squads indirectly received arms, funding, training and advice during the Jimmy Carter, Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush administrations.[131] Some death squads such as Sombra Negra are still operating in El Salvador.[132]
Death squads in Honduras
Honduras also had far-right death squads active through the 1980s, the most notorious of which was Battalion 3–16. Hundreds of people, teachers, politicians and union bosses were assassinated by government-backed forces. Battalion 316 received substantial support and training from the United States through the Central Intelligence Agency.[133] At least nineteen members were School of the Americas graduates.[134][135] As of mid-2006, seven members, including Billy Joya, later played important roles in the administration of President Manuel Zelaya.[136]
Following the 2009 Honduran constitutional crisis, former Battalion 3–16 member Nelson Willy Mejía Mejía became Director-General of Immigration[137][138] and Billy Joya was de facto President Roberto Micheletti's security advisor.[139] Napoleón Nassar Herrera, another former Battalion 3–16 member,[136][140] was high Commissioner of Police for the north-west region under Zelaya and under Micheletti, even becoming a Secretary of Security spokesperson "for dialogue" under Micheletti.[141][142] Zelaya claimed that Joya had reactivated the death squad, with dozens of government opponents having been murdered since the ascent of the Michiletti and Lobo governments.[139]
Mexico
National Synarchist Union
The largest far-right party in Mexico is the National Synarchist Union. It was historically a movement of the Roman Catholic extreme right, in some ways akin to
Peru
During the
Following
United States
In
Radical right
Starting in the 1870s and continuing through the late 19th century, numerous
Between the 1920s and the 1930s, the Ku Klux Klan developed an explicitly
During the
Although small voluntary militias had existed in the United States throughout the latter half of the 20th century, the groups became more popular during the early 1990s, after a series of standoffs between armed citizens and federal government agents, such as the 1992
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After the
Chetan Bhatt, in White Extinction: Metaphysical Elements of Contemporary Western Fascism, says that "The ‘fear of white extinction’, and related ideas of population eugenics, have travelled far and represent a wider political anxiety about ‘white displacement’ in the US, UK, and Europe that has fuelled the right-wing phenomena referred to by that sanitizing word ‘populism’, a term that neatly evades attention to the racism and white majoritarianism that energizes it."[186]
Asia
Japan
In 1996, the
Europe
Croatia
Individuals and groups in Croatia that employ far-right politics are most often associated with the historical
The coalition led by Miroslav Škoro's far-right Homeland Movement came third at the 2020 parliamentary election, winning 10.89% of the vote and 16 seats.[193][194]
Estonia
Estonia's most significant far-right movement was the
During World War II, the
Finland
In Finland, support for the far right was most widespread between 1920 and 1940 when the
The skinhead culture gained momentum during the late 1980s and peaked during the late 1990s. Numerous hate crimes were committed against refugees, including a number of racially motivated murders.[211][212]
Today, the most prominent neo-Nazi group is the Nordic Resistance Movement, which is tied to multiple murders, attempted murders and assaults of political enemies was found in 2006 and proscribed in 2019. Prominent far-right parties include the Blue-and-Black Movement and Power Belongs to the People.[213] The second biggest Finnish party, the Finns Party, has been described as far right.[214][215][216][217] The leader of the Finns party, Jussi Halla-aho, has been convicted of hate speech due to his comments stating that, "Prophet Muhammad was a pedophile and Islam justifies pedophilia and Pedophilia was Allah's will." Finns Party members have frequently supported far-right and neo-Nazi movements such as the Finnish Defense League, Soldiers of Odin, Nordic Resistance Movement, Rajat Kiinni (Close the Borders), and Suomi Ensin (Finland First). "[218]
France
The largest far-right party in Europe is the French anti-immigration party
Germany
In 1945, the
Greece
Metaxism
The far right in Greece first came to power under the ideology of Metaxism, a
The Metaxas government and its official doctrines are often compared to conventional totalitarian-conservative dictatorships such as
Axis occupation of Greece and aftermath
The Metaxis regime came to an end after the Axis powers invaded Greece. The Axis occupation of Greece began in April 1941.
Until 2019, the dominant far-right party in Greece in the 21st century was the
Founded by
Golden Dawn later lost all of its remaining seats in the Greek Parliament in the
Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was an
Italy
The far right has maintained a continuous political presence in Italy since the fall of Mussolini. The
Silvio Berlusconi and his Forza Italia party dominated politics from 1994. According to some scholars, it gave neo-fascism a new respectability.[271] Caio Giulio Cesare Mussolini, great-grandson of Benito Mussolini, stood for the 2019 European Parliament election as a member of the far right Brothers of Italy party.[271] In 2011, it was estimated that the neo-fascist CasaPound party had 5,000 members.[272] The name is derived from the fascist poet Ezra Pound. It has also been influenced by the Manifesto of Verona, the Labour Charter of 1927 and social legislation of fascism.[273] There has been collaboration between CasaPound and the identitarian movement.[274]
The
Netherlands
Despite being neutral, the Netherlands was invaded by
Poland
Following the collapse of
In 2019, the
Romania
The preeminent far-right party in Romania is the Greater Romania Party, founded in 1991 by Tudor, who was formerly known as a "
Both the ideology and the main political focus of the Greater Romania Party are reflected in frequently strongly nationalistic articles written by Tudor. The party has called for the outlawing of the ethnic Hungarian party, the
Serbia
In the
After the re-establishment of the multi-party system in Serbia in 1990, multiple right-wing movements and parties began getting popularity from which the
United Kingdom
The British far-right rose out of the
With the decline of the
Some Northern Irish
Oceania
Australia
Coming to prominence in
Since the 1980s, the term has mainly been used to describe those who express the wish to preserve what they perceive to be
New Zealand
A small number of far-right organisations have existed in New Zealand since World War II, including the Conservative Front, the New Zealand National Front and the National Democrats Party.[328][329] Far-right parties in New Zealand lack significant support, with their protests often dwarfed by counter protest.[330] After the Christchurch mosque shootings in 2019, the National Front "publicly shut up shop"[331] and largely went underground like other far-right groups.[332]
Fiji
Nationalist Vanua Tako Lavo Party
The Nationalist Vanua Tako Lavo Party was a far-right political party which advocated Fijian ethnic nationalism.[333] In 2009, party leader Iliesa Duvuloco was arrested for breaching the military regime's emergency laws by distributing pamphlets calling for an uprising against the military regime.[334] In January 2013, the military regime introduced regulations that essentially de-registered the party.[335][336]
Online
A number of far-right internet pages and forums are focused on and frequented by the far right. These include Stormfront and Iron March.
Stormfront
Stormfront is the oldest and most prominent
Iron March
Iron March was a fascist web forum founded in 2011 by Russian nationalist Alexander "Slavros" Mukhitdinov. An unknown individual uploaded a database of Iron March users to the Internet Archive in November 2019 and multiple neo-Nazi users were identified, including an ICE detention center captain and several active members of the United States Armed Forces.[340][341] As of mid 2018, the Southern Poverty Law Center linked Iron March to nearly 100 murders.[342][340] Mukhitdinov remained a murky figure at the time of the leaks.[343]
Right-wing terrorism
Right-wing terrorism is terrorism motivated by a variety of far right ideologies and beliefs, including anti-communism, neo-fascism, neo-Nazism, racism, xenophobia and opposition to immigration. This type of terrorism has been sporadic, with little or no international cooperation.[344] Modern right-wing terrorism first appeared in western Europe in the 1980s and it first appeared in Eastern Europe following the dissolution of the Soviet Union.[345]
Right-wing terrorists aim to overthrow governments and replace them with nationalist or fascist-oriented governments.[344] The core of this movement includes neo-fascist skinheads, far-right hooligans, youth sympathisers and intellectual guides who believe that the state must rid itself of foreign elements in order to protect rightful citizens.[345] However, they usually lack a rigid ideology.[345]
According to Cas Mudde, far-right terrorism and violence in the West have been generally perpetrated in recent times by individuals or groups of individuals "who have at best a peripheral association" with politically relevant organizations of the far right. Nevertheless, Mudde follows, "in recent years far-right violence has become more planned, regular, and lethal, as terrorists attacks in Christchurch (2019), Pittsburgh (2018), and Norway (2011) show."[26]
See also
- Antifeminism
- European New Right
- Far-left politics
- History of the far-right in Spain
- Manosphere
- Right-wing authoritarianism
- White ethnostate
- White power
References
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There are hate groups in South Africa. Perhaps among the most organized is the Afrikaner Resistance Movement or AWB (Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging). Included in its ideological platform are neo-Nazism and White supremacy.
- ^ Robyn Curnow; Nkepile Mabuse (5 April 2010). "South Africa's neo-Nazis drop revenge vow". CNN.
- ISBN 9781317861652.
Terre'Blanche, Eugene (1941–2010): Began career in the South African police. In 1973 founded the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging as a Nazi-inspired militant right-wing movement upholding white supremacy.
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The far-right National Liberation Movement (MLN), led by Mario Sandoval Alarcon, became an important political player; after 1969 it was responsible for the first death-squad killings of activists and regime opponents.
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Rather than moving toward the center, they were motivated by the imperatives of Chile's binomial electoral system, which induces parties to form coalitions, to ally with the far right Union Democratica Independiente (UDI)
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the far right party the Unión Democrática Independiente (Independent Democratic UDI)
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The far-right Independent Democratic Union (UDI) forms an ... electoral alliance with ... National Renovation (RN)
- )
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In their ideological core, the radical populist rights are composed of the combination of three traits: nativism, authoritarianism and populism. ... This recap allows to identify dimensions of analysis applicable to the Republican Party.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Chile's Bolsonaro? Hard-right Kast rises, targeting 'crime and violence'". Reuters. 22 November 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Dávila, Mireya (January 2020). "La reemergencia del pinochetismo". Barómetro de política y equidad. 16: 49–69.
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- ^ Rospigliosi, Fernando (1996). Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista. Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. pp. 46–47.
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a government plan, developed by the Peruvian army between 1989 and 1990s to deal with the Shining Path insurrection, later known as the 'Green Plan', whose (unpublished) text expresses in explicit terms a genocidal intention
- .
the military's growing frustration over the limitations placed upon its counterinsurgency operations by democratic institutions, coupled with the growing inability of civilian politicians to deal with the spiraling economic crisis and the expansion of the Shining Path, prompted a group of military officers to devise a coup plan in the late 1980s. The plan called for the dissolution of Peru's civilian government, military control over the state, and total elimination of armed opposition groups. The plan, developed in a series of documents known as the "Plan Verde," outlined a strategy for carrying out a military coup in which the armed forces would govern for 15 to 20 years and radically restructure state-society relations along neoliberal lines.
- ^ S2CID 154153310.
- ^ Rospigliosi, Fernando (1996). Las Fuerzas Armadas y el 5 de abril: la percepción de la amenaza subversiva como una motivación golpista. Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. pp. 28–40.
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important members of the officer corps, particularly within the army, had been contemplating a military coup and the establishment of an authoritarian regime, or a so-called directed democracy. The project was known as 'Plan Verde', the Green Plan. ... Fujimori essentially adopted the 'Plan Verde,' and the military became a partner in the regime. ... The autogolpe, or self-coup, of April 5, 1992, dissolved the Congress and the country's constitution and allowed for the implementation of the most important components of the 'Plan Verde.'
- ISBN 978-612-326-084-2. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
Fujimorism was an unprecedented authoritarian political regime
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- ^ "CHILE-PERU: Decision to Extradite Fujimori Sets International Precedent". Inter Press Service. 21 September 2007. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Millonarios japoneses, al rescate de Fujimori". El Tiempo (in Spanish). 11 August 2007. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "The Decline and Fall of Yukio Hatoyama". Washington Examiner. 2 June 2010. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "¿Tiene futuro nuestra extrema derecha?". La Republica (in Spanish). 11 January 2020. Retrieved 26 December 2021.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Candidato de la ultraderecha peruana es acusado de golpista por sus oponentes". EFE (in Spanish). Retrieved 12 March 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Campaña sin favoritos eleva incertidumbre en Perú a un mes de las presidenciales". France 24. 11 March 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Cavero, Natalia Puertas (10 March 2021). "'Uncle Porky,' the conservative, right-wing businessman is second in Peruvian election polls". Al Día. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ "Extreme Right Rises In Peruvian Politics". Latin American Herald Tribune. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
- ^ "Candidato ultraconservador peruano pide destituir al presidente Sagasti". Noticieros Televisa (in Mexican Spanish). 9 March 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ^ Aquino, Marco. "Peru's Bolsonaro? The Opus Dei ultra-conservative who would kick out Odebrecht". Reuters. Retrieved 18 March 2021.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Sectors of the U.S. Right Active in the Year 2011". The Public Eye. Political Research Associates. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
- ^ Schoep moved ahead with damage-control operations by nudging chairman emeritus Herrington from his position under the cover of "attending to personal matters." But it was too late to stop NSM Minister of Radio and Information Michael Blevins, aka Vonbluvens, from following White out of the party, citing disgust with Herrington's Joy of Satan ties. "Satanism," declared Blevins in his resignation letter, "affects the whole prime directive guiding the [NSM] – SURVIVAL OF THE WHITE RACE." [...] NSM was now a Noticeably Smaller Movement, one trailed in extremist circles by a strong whiff of Satanism and related charges of sexual impropriety associated with Joy of Satan initiation rites and curiously strong teen recruitment efforts., the neo-Nazi group's energetic spokesman, also quit, taking several NSM officials with him to create a new group, the American National Socialist Workers Party.
• "National Socialist Movement". SPLCenter.org. Montgomery, Alabama: Southern Poverty Law Center. 2020. Archived from the original on 8 September 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2020.The NSM has had its share of movement scandal. In July 2006, it was rocked by revelations that co-founder and chairman emeritus Cliff Herrington's wife was the "High Priestess" of the Joy of Satan Ministry, and that her satanic church shared an address with the Tulsa, Okla., NSM chapter. The exposure of Herrington's wife's Satanist connections caused quite a stir, particularly among those NSM members who adhered to a racist (and heretical) variant of Christianity, Christian Identity. Before the dust settled, both Herringtons were forced out of NSM. Bill White
- ^ a b "The National Socialist Movement". Adl.org. New York City: Anti-Defamation League. 2020. Archived from the original on 22 September 2017. Retrieved 28 December 2020.
- ^ racially pure "organic" society will be restored after what they believe to be an ongoing age of corruption, the Kali Yuga, is swept away in an apocalyptic war, and that it is their role to hasten the end of the Kali Yuga by generating chaos and violence.
- ^ Lipset & Raab 1973, p. 116.
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- ^ "Palveliko entinen puolustusministeri Arvo Pentti (s.13.2.1915 – k. 1.2.1986) suomalaisessa SS-Pataljoonassa 2.Maailmansodan aikana - jos palveli, kauanko, missä ja millä sotilasarvolla?" [Did former Minister of Defense Arvo Pentti (b. 13 February 1915 - d. 1 February 1986) serve in the Finnish SS Battalion during World War II - if so, for how long, where and with what military rank?]. Kysy kirjastonhoitajalta [Ask your librarian] (in Finnish). Kirjastot.fi. 31 May 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2016.
- ^ Seitsemän vuotta uusnatsina Helsingin sanomat 17.10.2013
- ^ "Right-Wing Terrorism and Militancy in the Nordic Countries: A Comparative Case Study" (PDF). University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
One particularly severe episode happened in 1997, when a group of about 50 skinheads attacked Somali youths playing football in the Helsinki suburb Kontula. The violence did not stop before the police started shooting warning shots, and 22 skinheads were sentenced for the attack. Pekonen et al. also mention a number of other violent events from the 1990s, including ten particularly severe events from 1995 (not included in the RTV dataset because sufficient event details are lacking): a racist murder, an immigrant stabbed by a skinhead, four attacks on immigrants using explosives, and another four immigrants beaten severely.
- Finnish Broadcasting Company. 2 February 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
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Rinne led his party to a razor-thin victory in last month's general election, holding off the far-right Finns Party which surged into second place on an anti-immigration agenda.
- ^ "Finland's Social Democrats win razor-thin victory against far-right party". euronews. 15 April 2019.
Finland's leftist Social Democrats won first place in Sunday's general election with 17.7% of the votes, avoiding a near defeat by the far-right Finns Party, which rose in the ranks with an anti-immigration agenda.
- ^ "A look at euroskeptic and populist forces in the European Union". The Japan Times. 21 May 2019.
Finland's far-right, anti-immigration Finns Party more than doubled its seats in April national elections, closely tailing the leftist Social Democrats who won only narrowly.
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However, Golden Dawn's neo-Nazi profile is clearly visible in the party's symbolism, with its flag resembling a swastika, Nazi salutes and chant of 'Blood and Honour' encapsulating its xenophobic and racist ideology.
- ^
Vasilopoulou; Halikiopoulou (2015), The Golden Dawn's 'Nationalist Solution', p. 32,
The extremist character of the Golden Dawn, its neo-Nazi principles, racism and ultranationalism, as well as its violence, render the party a least likely case of success [...].
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...mit der seit 1993 als Partei anerkannten offen neonationalsozialistischen Gruppierung Goldene Mörgenröte (Chryssi Avgí, Χρυσή Αυγή) kooperierte... [...cooperated with the openly neo-National Socialist group Golden Dawn (Chryssi Avgí, Χρυσή Αυγή), which has been recognized as a party since 1993...]
- ^ Davies, Peter; Jackson, Paul (2008), The Far Right in Europe: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood World Press, p. 173
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On 12 March 2004, Chrysi Avghi (Golden Dawn), the new weekly newspaper of the Neo-Nazi organization with that name, cited another survey which indicated that the percentage of Greeks who view immigrants unfavorably is 89 percent.
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The use of the terms extreme-Right, neo-Nazi, and fascist as synonymous is on purpose. Historically in Greece, the terms have been used alternatively in reference to the para-state apparatuses, but not only. (pg: 542)
- S2CID 145624655,
...Nikolaos Michaloliakos, who established the fascistic far-right party Chrysi Avgi ("Golden Dawn") in the early 1980s.
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For example, during the summer of 2000 members of Chryssi Avgi, the most widespread fascist organization in Greece, destroyed part of the third cemetery in Athens...
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Interestingly, the placement of the extreme right Chrysi Avyi does not seem to be influenced by this bias, although this has more do with the lack of variance in the data (32 out of 33 experts placed the party on 10)
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On October 24, 1998 the Greek right-wing extremist organization Chrisi Avgi ("Golden Dawn") was the host for the "5th European Youth Congress" in Thessaloniki.
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- (Gorenfeld 2008, p. 68). "She has even written in to neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront, geeking out together on Peter Jackson's film adaptation;..."
- (Friedman 2002, p. 163). "Stormfront provides its viewers with... a general store stocked with Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and neo-Nazi literature and music..."
- (Katel 2010, p. 79). "...a March 13 Web post by Poplawski to the neo-Nazi Web site Stormfront."
- (Moulitsas 2010, p. 56). "Poplawski was active on white supremacist and neo-Nazi Stormfront internet forums."
- (Martin & Petro 2006, p. 174). "...9/11 Internet chat-room discussions, including radical hate-group sites like the neo-Nazi Stormfront.org."
- ^ Hern, Alex (29 August 2017). "Stormfront: 'murder capital of internet' pulled offline after civil rights action". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
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- Hern, Alex (29 August 2017). "Stormfront: 'murder capital of internet' pulled offline after civil rights action". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 September 2017.
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Bibliography
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Notes
- ^ Mudde 2002, p. 12: "Simply stated, the difference between radicalism and extremism is that the former is verfassungswidrig (opposed to the constitution), whereas the latter is verfassungsfeindlich (hostile towards the constitution). This difference is of the utmost practical importance for the political parties involved, as extremist parties are extensively watched by the (federal and state) Verfassungsschutz and can even be banned, whereas radical parties are free from this control."
- ^ Mudde 2002, p. 13: "All in all, most definitions of (whatever) populism do not differ that much in content from the definitions of right-wing extremism. [...] When the whole range of different terms and definitions used in the field is surveyed, there are striking similarities, with the various terms often being used synonymously and without any clear intention. Only a few authors, most notably those working within the extremist-theoretical tradition, clearly distinguish between the various terms."
Further reading
- Akkerman, Tjitske, Sarah L. de Lange and Matthijs Rooduijn, eds. Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties in Western Europe (2016)
- Arzheimer, Kai (11 March 2012). "The Eclectic, Erratic Bibliography on the Extreme Right in Western Europe". kai arzheimer website. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
- Davies, Peter, and Derek Lynch, eds. The Routledge companion to fascism and the far right (Psychology Press, 2002).
- Edgren, Torsten; Manninen, Merja; Ukkonen, Jari (2003). Eepos, Suomen historian käsikirja. WSOY. ISBN 951-0-27651-0.
- Hainsworth, Paul (2000). The Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream. Pinter.
- Kundnani, A. Blind Spot? Security Narratives and Far-Right Violence in Europe (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism—The Hague, 2012)
- Lazaridis, Gabriella, Giovanna Campani, and Annie Benveniste (eds.) The Rise of the Far Right in Europe: Populist Shifts and 'Othering' (2016)
- Macklin, Graham. "Transnational networking on the far right: The case of Britain and Germany." West European Politics 36.1 (2013): 176–198.
- Merkl, Peter H.; Weinberg, Leonard (2003). Right-wing Extremism in the Twenty-first Century. Frank Cass Publishers. ISBN 9780714651828.
- Mieriņa, Inta, and Ilze Koroļeva. "Support for far right ideology and anti‐migrant attitudes among youth in Europe: A comparative analysis." Sociological Review 63 (2015): 183–205. online
- Mudde, Cas. Populist Radical Right Parties in Europe (2007)
- Parsons, Craig; Smeedling, Timothy M. (2006). Immigration and the transformation of Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139458801.
- Rydgren, Jens, ed. (2018). The Oxford Handbook of the Radical Right. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190644185.
- Twist, Kimberly A. (2019). Partnering with Extremists: Coalitions between Mainstream and Far-Right Parties in Western Europe. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-13134-1.
External links
Media related to Politicsman540/sandbox at Wikimedia Commons