Nickel: Difference between revisions

Nickel
Hazards
	GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Signal word	Danger
Hazard statements	H317, H351, H372, H412
Precautionary statements	P201, P202, P260, P264, P270, P272, P273, P280, P302+P352, P308+P313, P333+P313, P363, P405, P501
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	2 0 0

Nickel, ₂₈Ni
Nickel
Appearance	Lustrous, metallic, and silver with a gold tinge
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Ni)
	58.6934±0.0004; 58.693±0.001 (abridged);
Nickel in the periodic table
	cobalt ← nickel → copper
kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization	379 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity	26.07 J/(mol·K)
Atomic properties
Discovery and first isolation	Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1751)
Isotopes of nickel v; e;
	Category: Nickel; view; talk; edit; \| references

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Nickel is a

standard conditions because an oxide layer forms on the surface and prevents further corrosion (passivation). Even so, pure native nickel is found in Earth's crust only in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks,^[7]^[8] and in the interiors of larger nickel–iron meteorites

that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earth's atmosphere.

Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron, a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth's outer and inner cores.^[9]

Use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral, in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden. The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick), who personified the fact that copper-nickel ores resisted refinement into copper. An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite, which often contains 1–2% nickel. Nickel's other important ore minerals include pentlandite and a mixture of Ni-rich natural silicates known as garnierite. Major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin), New Caledonia in the Pacific, and Norilsk in Russia.

Nickel is slowly

coins

, though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years.

Nickel is one of four elements (the others are

enzymes with nickel as an active site.^[14]

Properties

Atomic and physical properties

Electron micrograph of a Ni nanocrystal inside a single wall carbon nanotube; scale bar 5 nm.^[15]

Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature, the others being iron,

thermal conductivity for transition metals.^[17] The high compressive strength of 34 GPa, predicted for ideal crystals, is never obtained in the real bulk material due to the formation and movement of dislocations. However, it has been reached in Ni nanoparticles.^[18]

Electron configuration dispute

The nickel atom has two

Madelung energy ordering rule, which predicts that 4s is filled before 3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d⁸ 4s² energy level, specifically the 3d⁸(³F) 4s² ³F, J = 4 level.^[22]

However, each of these two configurations splits into several energy levels due to fine structure,^[22] and the two sets of energy levels overlap. The average energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d⁹ 4s¹ is actually lower than the average energy of states with configuration [Ar] 3d⁸ 4s². For this reason, the research literature on atomic calculations quotes the ground state configuration of nickel as [Ar] 3d⁹ 4s¹.^[19]

Isotopes

The isotopes of nickel range in

u

(⁴⁸
Ni) to 78 u (⁷⁸
Ni).

Naturally occurring nickel is composed of five stable isotopes; ⁵⁸
Ni, ⁶⁰
Ni, ⁶¹
Ni, ⁶²
Ni and ⁶⁴
Ni, with ⁵⁸
Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance).

⁵⁸
Fe, more abundant elements often incorrectly cited as having the most tightly bound nuclides.^[25] Although this would seem to predict nickel-62 as the most abundant heavy element in the universe, the relatively high rate of photodisintegration of nickel in stellar interiors causes iron to be by far the most abundant.^[25]

The stable isotope nickel-60 is the daughter product of the

solar system may generate observable variations in the isotopic composition of ⁶⁰
Ni. Therefore, the abundance of ⁶⁰
Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history.^{[citation needed}

]

At least 26 nickel

meta state.^[26]

Radioactive nickel-56 is produced by the

doubly magic", as is ⁷⁸
Ni with 28 protons and 50 neutrons. Both are therefore unusually stable for nuclides with so large a proton–neutron imbalance.^[26]^[29]

Occurrence

On Earth, nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena.^[30] Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite. The presence of nickel in meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust, a French chemist who then worked in Spain. Proust analyzed samples of the meteorite from Campo del Cielo (Argentina), which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along with iron.^[31]

The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The first is laterite, where the principal ore mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite, (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-rich silicates). The second is magmatic sulfide deposits, where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni,Fe)
₉S
₈.^{[citation needed]}

Indonesia and Australia have the biggest estimated reserves, at 46% of world's total.^[32]

Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in

laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits.^[33]

On

nickel iron meteorites.^[34]

Compounds

The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni⁰, Ni⁺, and Ni³⁺ are well known, and the exotic oxidation states Ni²⁻, Ni¹⁻, and Ni⁴⁺ have been produced and studied.^[35]

Nickel(0)

A nickel atom with four single bonds to carbonyl (carbon triple-bonded to oxygen; bonds via the carbon) groups that are laid out tetrahedrally around it — Tetracarbonyl nickel

Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)
₄), discovered by Ludwig Mond,^[36] is a volatile, highly toxic liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide:

Ni(CO)
₄ ⇌ Ni + 4 CO

This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel, as described above. The related nickel(0) complex bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful catalyst in organonickel chemistry because the cyclooctadiene (or cod) ligands are easily displaced.

Nickel(I)

Nickel(I) complexes are uncommon, but one example is the tetrahedral complex NiBr(PPh₃)₃. Many nickel(I) complexes feature Ni-Ni bonding, such as the dark red

diamagnetic K
₄[Ni
₂(CN)
₆] prepared by reduction of K
₂[Ni
₂(CN)
₆] with sodium amalgam. This compound is oxidised in water, liberating H
₂.^[37]

It is thought that the nickel(I) oxidation state is important to nickel-containing enzymes, such as

protons to H
₂.^[38]

Nickel(II)

hydrated nickel(II) sulfate

.

Nickel(II) forms compounds with all common anions, including

sulfate, carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides. Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid, forming both a hexa- and heptahydrates^[39] useful for electroplating nickel. Common salts of nickel, such as chloride, nitrate, and sulfate, dissolve in water to give green solutions of the metal aquo complex

[Ni(H
₂O)
₆]²⁺
.

The four halides form nickel compounds, which are solids with molecules that feature octahedral Ni centres. Nickel(II) chloride is most common, and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is produced by dissolving nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid. It is usually encountered as the green hexahydrate, the formula of which is usually written NiCl₂•6H₂O. When dissolved in water, this salt forms the metal aquo complex [Ni(H
₂O)
₆]²⁺
. Dehydration of NiCl₂•6H₂O gives the yellow anhydrous NiCl
₂.

Some tetracoordinate nickel(II) complexes, e.g.

diamagnetic. In having properties of magnetic equilibrium and formation of octahedral complexes, they contrast with the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which form only square-planar geometry.^[35]

Nickelocene is known; it has an electron count of 20, making it relatively unstable.

Nickel(III) and (IV)

Numerous Ni(III) compounds are known, with the first such examples being Nickel(III) trihalophosphines (Ni_III(PPh₃)X₃).^[40] Further, Ni(III) forms simple salts with fluoride^[41] or oxide ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by σ-donor ligands such as thiols and phosphines.^[37]

Ni(IV) is present in the mixed oxide BaNiO
₃, while Ni(III) is present in

Li-ion batteries.^[42] Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state of nickel and very few compounds are known to date.^[43]^[44]^[45]^[46]

History

Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel.^[47] Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that "white copper" (cupronickel, known as baitong) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822.^[48] Coins of nickel-copper alloy were minted by the Bactrian kings Agathocles, Euthydemus II, and Pantaleon in the 2nd century BCE, possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel.^[49]

In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the

Old Nick), for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for copper.^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53] This ore is now known to be nickeline, a nickel arsenide. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of Los, and instead produced a white metal that he named after the spirit that had given its name to the mineral, nickel.^[54] In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel.^[17]

Originally, the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich pyrrhotite. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel, and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, Canada in 1883, in Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef, South Africa in 1924, made large-scale production of nickel possible.^[48]

Coinage

Aside from the aforementioned Bactrian coins, nickel was not a component of coins until the mid-19th century.

Canada

99.9% nickel five-cent coins were struck in Canada (the world's largest nickel producer at the time) during non-war years from 1922 to 1981; the metal content made these coins magnetic.^[55] During the wartime period 1942–45, most or all nickel was removed from Canadian and US coins to save it for manufacturing armor.^[51]^[56] Canada used 99.9% nickel from 1968 in its higher-value coins until 2000.

Switzerland

Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland.^[57]

United Kingdom

Birmingham forged nickel coins in c. 1833 for trading in Malaya.^[58]

United States

In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" originally applied to the copper-nickel

three-cent nickel, with nickel increased to 25%. In 1866, the five-cent shield nickel

(25% nickel, 75% copper) appropriated the designation. Along with the alloy proportion, this term has been used to the present in the United States.

Current use

In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins still made with nickel alloys include one- and two-euro coins, 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, and 50¢ U.S. coins, and 20p, 50p, £1, and £2 UK coins. Nickel-alloy in 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel began in 2012, causing allergy problems for some people and public controversy.^[57]

World production

More than 2.7 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are estimated to be mined worldwide, with Indonesia (800,000 t), the Philippines (420,000 t),^[60] Russia (270,000 t), New Caledonia (220,000 t), Australia (180,000 t) and Canada (180,000 t) being the largest producers as of 2019.^[61] The largest deposits of nickel in non-Russian Europe are located in Finland and Greece. Identified land-based resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at least 130 million tonnes of nickel. Approximately 60% is in laterites and 40% is in sulfide deposits. In addition, extensive deep-sea resources of nickel are in manganese crusts and nodules covering large areas of the ocean floor, particularly in the Pacific Ocean.^[62]

The one locality in the United States where nickel has been profitably mined is

Eagle mine project is a new nickel mine in Michigan's upper peninsula. Construction was completed in 2013, and operations began in the third quarter of 2014.^[65] In the first full year of operation, the Eagle Mine produced 18,000 t.^[65]

Extraction and purification

Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy: it is extracted from the ore by conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield a metal of greater than 75% purity. In many stainless steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification, depending on the impurities.

Traditionally, most sulfide ores have been processed using

Sherritt-Gordon process. First, copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide

, leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extraction is used to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel content greater than 99%.

Electrorefining

A second common refining process is leaching the metal matte into a nickel salt solution, followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode as electrolytic nickel.

Mond process

The purest metal is obtained from nickel oxide by the

nickel carbonyl. Iron gives iron pentacarbonyl, too, but this reaction is slow. If necessary, the nickel may be separated by distillation. Dicobalt octacarbonyl is also formed in nickel distillation as a by-product, but it decomposes to tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl at the reaction temperature to give a non-volatile solid.^[67]

Nickel is obtained from nickel carbonyl by one of two processes. It may be passed through a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are constantly stirred. The carbonyl decomposes and deposits pure nickel onto the nickel spheres. In the alternate process, nickel carbonyl is decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 °C to create a fine nickel powder. The byproduct carbon monoxide is recirculated and reused. The highly pure nickel product is known as "carbonyl nickel".[68]

Metal value

The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at US$52,300/tonne or $1.47/oz.^[69] The price subsequently fell dramatically, and as of September 2017, the metal was trading at $11,000/tonne, or $0.31/oz.^[70]

The US nickel coin contains 0.04 ounces (1.1 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, with a total metal value of more than 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the United States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of cents and nickels.^[71] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years.

As of September 19, 2013, the melt value of a US nickel (copper and nickel included) is $0.045, which is 90% of the face value.^[72]

Applications

The global production of nickel is presently used as follows: 68% in stainless steel; 10% in nonferrous alloys; 9% in electroplating; 7% in alloy steel; 3% in foundries; and 4% other uses (including batteries).^[11]

Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, alnico magnets, coinage, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing fixtures,^[73] and special alloys such as permalloy, elinvar, and invar. It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit. It is widely used in many other alloys, including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold (Inconel, Incoloy, Monel, Nimonic).^[74]

A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico nickel alloy.

Because it is resistant to corrosion, nickel was occasionally used as a substitute for decorative silver. Nickel was also occasionally used in some countries after 1859 as a cheap coinage metal (see above), but in the later years of the 20th century, it was replaced by cheaper stainless steel (i.e. iron) alloys, except in the United States and Canada.

Nickel is an excellent alloying agent for certain precious metals and is used in the fire assay as a collector of platinum group elements (PGE). As such, nickel is capable of fully collecting all six PGE elements from ores, and of partially collecting gold. High-throughput nickel mines may also engage in PGE recovery (primarily platinum and palladium); examples are Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada.

Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in gas diffusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells.^[75]^[76]

Nickel and its alloys are frequently used as catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. Raney nickel, a finely divided nickel-aluminium alloy, is one common form, though related catalysts are also used, including Raney-type catalysts.

Nickel is a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that, in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a small change in length.^[77]^[78] The magnetostriction of nickel is on the order of 50 ppm and is negative, indicating that it contracts.

Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6% to 12% by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion-resistance to the cemented parts, although the hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder.^[79]

⁶³
Ni, with its half-life of 100.1 years, is useful in krytron devices as a beta particle (high-speed electron) emitter to make ionization by the keep-alive electrode more reliable.^[80]

Around 27% of all nickel production is destined for engineering, 10% for building and construction, 14% for tubular products, 20% for metal goods, 14% for transport, 11% for electronic goods, and 5% for other uses.^[11]

contaminant. Forte et al. found that type 2 diabetic patients have 0.89 ng/ml of Ni in the blood relative to 0.77 ng/ml in the control subjects.^[81]

Biological role

Although it was not recognized until the 1970s, nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some plants,

trypanosomal parasites^[90] (in higher organisms, including yeast and mammals, this enzyme contains divalent Zn²⁺).^[91]^[92]^[93]^[94]^[95]

Dietary nickel may affect human health through infections by nickel-dependent bacteria, but it is also possible that nickel is an essential nutrient for bacteria residing in the large intestine, in effect functioning as a

Tolerable Upper Intake Level of dietary nickel is 1000 µg/day as soluble nickel salts. Dietary intake is estimated at 70 to 100 µg/day, with less than 10% absorbed. What is absorbed is excreted in urine.^[97] Relatively large amounts of nickel – comparable to the estimated average ingestion above – leach into food cooked in stainless steel. For example, the amount of nickel leached after 10 cooking cycles into one serving of tomato sauce averages 88 µg.^[98]^[99]

Nickel released from Siberian Traps volcanic eruptions is suspected of assisting the growth of Methanosarcina, a genus of euryarchaeote archaea that produced methane during the Permian–Triassic extinction event, the biggest extinction event on record.^[100]

Toxicity

The major source of nickel exposure is oral consumption, as nickel is essential to plants.

chelating action of albumin

.

The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health. Most of the nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumulative poison, but larger doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic, even carcinogenic, and constitute an occupational hazard.^[103]

Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens^[104]^[105]^[106]^[107] based on increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers.^[108] This is supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice.^[109]^[110] The human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation.^[111]^[112] Nickel metal is classified as a suspect carcinogen;^[104]^[105]^[106] there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers predominantly exposed to metallic nickel^[108] and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder.^[113] In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and nickel metal, increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were observed.^[107]^[109]^[113]^[114] In rat studies, oral ingestion of water-soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality effects in pregnant animals.^[115] Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects.^[116]^[117]^[118]^[119]

People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, and contact with skin or eye. The

Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)
₄] is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal and the off-gassing of carbon monoxide from the carbonyl functional groups; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air.^[121]^[122]

pierced ears.^[124] Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or with low-release nickel^[125] to address this problem. The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the European Union. In 2002, researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be the result of a galvanic reaction.^[126] Nickel was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.^[127] In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a position statement on the safety of nickel: "Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis, which includes nickel sensitization, accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and affects nearly 72.29 million people."^[123]

Reports show that both the nickel-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the up-regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular

ascorbate. The addition of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal-induced stabilization of HIF-1- and HIF-1α-dependent gene expression.^[128]^[129]

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^ "London Metal Exchange". LME.com. Archived from the original on September 20, 2017.

^ United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins Archived May 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The United States Mint, press release, December 14, 2006

^ "United States Circulating Coinage Intrinsic Value Table". Coininflation.com. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2013.

^ American Plumbing Practice: From the Engineering Record (Prior to 1887 the Sanitary Engineer.) A Selected Reprint of Articles Describing Notable Plumbing Installations in the United States, and Questions and Answers on Problems Arising in Plumbing and House Draining. With Five Hundred and Thirty-six Illustrations. Engineering record. 1896. p. 119. Retrieved May 28, 2016.

ISBN 978-0-87170-685-0
.

ISBN 978-3-527-32638-9. Archived
from the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.

^ Bidault, F.; Brett, D. J. L.; Middleton, P. H.; Brandon, N. P. "A New Cathode Design for Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)" (PDF). Imperial College London. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 20, 2011.

^ Magnetostrictive Materials Overview. University of California, Los Angeles.

ISBN 9781109187533
.

S2CID 135714029
.

^ "Krytron Pulse Power Switching Tubes". Silicon Investigations. 2011. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011.

PMID 24401367.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
)

^
ISBN 978-0-470-01671-8
.

^
PMID 23595678. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
)

ISBN 978-1-78262-498-1
.

S2CID 10376008
.

PMID 10639402
.

^ Stephen W., Ragdale (2014). "Chapter 6. Biochemistry of Methyl-Coenzyme M Reductase: The Nickel Metalloenzyme that Catalyzes the Final Step in Synthesis and the First Step in Anaerobic Oxidation of the Greenhouse Gas Methane". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres (eds.). The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 14. Springer. pp. 125–145.
PMID 25416393
.

^ Wang, Vincent C.-C.; Ragsdale, Stephen W.; Armstrong, Fraser A. (2014). "Chapter 4. Investigations of the Efficient Electrocatalytic Interconversions of Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide by Nickel-Containing Carbon Monoxide Dehydrogenases". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres (eds.). The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 14. Springer. pp. 71–97.
PMID 25416391
.

PMID 15012109
.

PMID 16958620
.

PMID 352355
.

PMID 8670058
.

PMID 9671502
.

PMID 14641060
.

^ Vander Jagt DL (1989). "Unknown chapter title". In D Dolphin; R Poulson; O Avramovic (eds.). Coenzymes and Cofactors VIII: Glutathione Part A. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

PMID 24470096
.

^ Nickel. IN: Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Copper Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. National Academy Press. 2001, PP. 521–529.

PMID 23984718
.

PMID 9102344
.

^ Schirber, Michael (July 27, 2014). "Microbe's Innovation May Have Started Largest Extinction Event on Earth". Space.com. Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on July 29, 2014. Retrieved July 29, 2014. .... That spike in nickel allowed methanogens to take off.

^ "Nickel 203904". Sigma Aldrich. Archived from the original on January 26, 2020. Retrieved January 26, 2020.

PMID 28300623
.

ISBN 9781483345734
.

^ ^a ^b IARC (2012). "Nickel and nickel compounds" Archived September 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine in IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. Volume 100C. pp. 169–218..

^ ^a ^b Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures, Amending and Repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 [OJ L 353, 31.12.2008, p. 1]. Annex VI Archived March 14, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Accessed July 13, 2017.

^ ^a ^b Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) Archived August 29, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, 5th ed., United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2013..

^ ^a ^b National Toxicology Program. (2016). "Report on Carcinogens" Archived September 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, 14th ed. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service..

^
PMID 2185539
.

^
PMID 12594522
.

PMID 12594524
.

PMID 22158127
.

PMID 17692353
.

^
PMID 18822311
.

PMID 12587012
.

^ Springborn Laboratories Inc. (2000). "An Oral (Gavage) Two-generation Reproduction Toxicity Study in Sprague-Dawley Rats with Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate." Final Report. Springborn Laboratories Inc., Spencerville. SLI Study No. 3472.4.

PMID 16539171
.

S2CID 24791972
.

S2CID 1439478
.

PMID 18655106
.

^ "CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Nickel metal and other compounds (as Ni)". www.cdc.gov. Archived from the original on July 18, 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2015.

ISBN 978-92-2-109816-4. Archived
from the original on May 29, 2013. Retrieved January 9, 2012.

PMID 10382559
.

^ ^a ^b Position Statement on Nickel Sensitivity Archived September 8, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. American Academy of Dermatology(August 22, 2015)

S2CID 44890665
.

^ Dermal Exposure: Nickel Alloys Archived February 22, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), accessed 2016 Feb.11

S2CID 52866209
.

^ Dow, Lea (June 3, 2008). "Nickel Named 2008 Contact Allergen of the Year". Nickel Allergy Information. Archived from the original on February 3, 2009.

PMID 15271983
.

PMID 19106437. Archived from the original
(PDF) on April 10, 2009. Retrieved August 22, 2011.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nickel.

Look up nickel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Nickel at The Periodic Table of Videos
(University of Nottingham)

CDC – Nickel – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic

An occupational hygiene assessment of dermal nickel exposures in primary production industries by GW Hughson. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/04/05

An occupational hygiene assessment of dermal nickel exposures in primary production and primary user industries. Phase 2 Report by GW Hughson. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/05/06

"The metal that brought you cheap flights", BBC

v
t
e
Periodic table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

1 H He

2 Li Be B C N O F Ne

3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar

4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr

5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe

6 Cs Ba La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn

7 Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og

s-block

f-block

d-block

p-block

v
t
e
Nickel compounds
Nickel(0)

Ni(CO)₄

Ni(COD)₂

Nickel(II)

NiF₂
K₂NiF₄

NiF²⁻
₄

NiCl₂
NiCl²⁻
₄

NiBr₂
NiBr²⁻
₄

NiI₂
NiI²⁻
₄

Ni(CN)₂
K₂Ni(CN)₄

Ni(SCN)₂

NiO

Ni(OH)₂

NiCO₃

NiSO₄

Ni₃(PO₄)₂

NiCrO₄

NiTiO₃

NiSeO₄

NiS

NiSe

Ni(ClO₄)₂

Ni(NO₃)₂

Ni(NO₂)₂
Ni(NO₂)³⁻
₅ / Ni(NO₂)⁴⁻
₆

Ni(CO₂H)₂

C
₂₄H
₄₆NiO
₄

C
₃₆H
₇₀NiO
₄

Ni(acac)₂

Nickel(III)

NiF₃

Ni₂O₃

NiOOH

Nickel(IV)

NiF₄

K₂NiF₆

MNiO_$x$

Authority control databases
National

France

BnF data

Germany

Israel

United States

Latvia

Japan

Czech Republic

Other

NARA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nickel&oldid=987945929"

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[usgs1-62] "Nickel" (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries. January 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 9, 2013. Retrieved September 20, 2013.

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[eagle-65] "Operations & Development". Lundin Mining Corporation. Archived from the original on November 18, 2015. Retrieved August 10, 2014.

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[LME-69] "LME nickel price graphs". London Metal Exchange. Archived from the original on February 28, 2009. Retrieved June 6, 2009.

[70] "London Metal Exchange". LME.com. Archived from the original on September 20, 2017.

[71] United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins Archived May 27, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, The United States Mint, press release, December 14, 2006

[72] "United States Circulating Coinage Intrinsic Value Table". Coininflation.com. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved September 13, 2013.

[73] American Plumbing Practice: From the Engineering Record (Prior to 1887 the Sanitary Engineer.) A Selected Reprint of Articles Describing Notable Plumbing Installations in the United States, and Questions and Answers on Problems Arising in Plumbing and House Draining. With Five Hundred and Thirty-six Illustrations. Engineering record. 1896. p. 119. Retrieved May 28, 2016.

[74] ISBN 978-0-87170-685-0
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[75] ISBN 978-3-527-32638-9. Archived
from the original on September 10, 2015. Retrieved June 27, 2015.

[76] Bidault, F.; Brett, D. J. L.; Middleton, P. H.; Brandon, N. P. "A New Cathode Design for Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs)" (PDF). Imperial College London. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 20, 2011.

[77] Magnetostrictive Materials Overview. University of California, Los Angeles.

[78] ISBN 9781109187533
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[79] S2CID 135714029
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[80] "Krytron Pulse Power Switching Tubes". Silicon Investigations. 2011. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011.

[81] PMID 24401367.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link
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[Sigel-82] 
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[Sydor-83] 
PMID 23595678. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help
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[84] ISBN 978-1-78262-498-1
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[85] S2CID 10376008
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[86] PMID 10639402
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[87] Stephen W., Ragdale (2014). "Chapter 6. Biochemistry of Methyl-Coenzyme M Reductase: The Nickel Metalloenzyme that Catalyzes the Final Step in Synthesis and the First Step in Anaerobic Oxidation of the Greenhouse Gas Methane". In Peter M.H. Kroneck; Martha E. Sosa Torres (eds.). The Metal-Driven Biogeochemistry of Gaseous Compounds in the Environment. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 14. Springer. pp. 125–145.
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[aronsson_1978-91] PMID 352355
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[97] Nickel. IN: Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Copper Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine. National Academy Press. 2001, PP. 521–529.

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[Nickel_and_nickel_compounds-104] IARC (2012). "Nickel and nickel compounds" Archived September 20, 2017, at the Wayback Machine in IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum. Volume 100C. pp. 169–218..

[Reg_1272/2008-105] Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures, Amending and Repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 [OJ L 353, 31.12.2008, p. 1]. Annex VI Archived March 14, 2019, at the Wayback Machine. Accessed July 13, 2017.

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@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 Nickel is slowly [[oxidation|oxidized]] by air at room temperature and is considered corrosion-resistant. Historically, it has been used for plating iron and [[brass]], coating chemistry equipment, and manufacturing certain [[alloy]]s that retain a high silvery polish, such as [[Nickel silver|German silver]]. About 9% of world nickel production is still used for corrosion-resistant nickel plating. Nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke [[nickel allergy]]. Nickel has been widely used in [[coins]], though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years.
-Nickel is one of four elements (the others are [[iron]], [[cobalt]], and [[gadolinium]])<ref name="CoeySkumryev1999">{{cite journal|last1=Coey| first1=J. M. D.| last2=Skumryev| first2=V.|last3=Gallagher|first3=K.|journal=Nature |volume=401| issue=6748| year=1999| pages=35–36|doi=10.1038/43363 | title = Rare-earth metals: Is gadolinium really ferromagnetic?|bibcode=1999Natur.401...35C}}</ref> that are [[ferromagnetic]] at approximately room temperature. [[Alnico]] permanent [[magnets]] based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and [[rare-earth magnet]]s. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in [[alloy]]s; about 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other applications, including the fast-growing battery sector,<ref name="Nickel Use In Society">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.aspx|title=Nickel Use In Society|website=Nickel Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000402/https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.aspx|archive-date=September 21, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> including those in [[electric vehicle]]s (EVs).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Treadgold|first=Tim|title=Gold Is Hot But Nickel Is Hotter As Demand Grows For Batteries In Electric Vehicles|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/timtreadgold/2019/08/11/gold-is-hot-but-nickel-is-hotter-as-demand-grows-for-batteries-in-electric-vehicles/|access-date=2020-10-14|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a [[Raney nickel|catalyst for hydrogenation]], [[cathode]]s for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/MediaCenter/NiCompounds/NI%20Compounds%202015%20v12%20FINAL.ashx?la=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831002419/https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/MediaCenter/NiCompounds/NI%20Compounds%202015%20v12%20FINAL.ashx?la=en|url-status=dead|archive-date=2018-08-31|title=Nickel Compounds – The Inside Story|last=|first=|date=|website=Nickel Institute|access-date=}}</ref> Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have [[enzymes]] with nickel as an [[active site]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mulrooney|first=Scott B.|last2=Hausinger|first2=Robert P.|date=2003-06-01|title=Nickel uptake and utilization by microorganisms|url=https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/27/2-3/239/614619|journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews|language=en|volume=27|issue=2-3|pages=239–261|doi=10.1016/S0168-6445(03)00042-1|issn=0168-6445}}</ref>
+Nickel is one of four elements (the others are [[iron]], [[cobalt]], and [[gadolinium]])<ref name="CoeySkumryev1999">{{cite journal|last1=Coey| first1=J. M. D.| last2=Skumryev| first2=V.|last3=Gallagher|first3=K.|journal=Nature |volume=401| issue=6748| year=1999| pages=35–36|doi=10.1038/43363 | title = Rare-earth metals: Is gadolinium really ferromagnetic?|bibcode=1999Natur.401...35C| s2cid=4383791}}</ref> that are [[ferromagnetic]] at approximately room temperature. [[Alnico]] permanent [[magnets]] based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and [[rare-earth magnet]]s. The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in [[alloy]]s; about 68% of world production is used in stainless steel. A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, 9% in plating and 4% in other applications, including the fast-growing battery sector,<ref name="Nickel Use In Society">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.aspx|title=Nickel Use In Society|website=Nickel Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170921000402/https://www.nickelinstitute.org/NickelUseInSociety/AboutNickel/FirstAndEndUsesofNickel.aspx|archive-date=September 21, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> including those in [[electric vehicle]]s (EVs).<ref>{{Cite web|last=Treadgold|first=Tim|title=Gold Is Hot But Nickel Is Hotter As Demand Grows For Batteries In Electric Vehicles|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/timtreadgold/2019/08/11/gold-is-hot-but-nickel-is-hotter-as-demand-grows-for-batteries-in-electric-vehicles/|access-date=2020-10-14|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> As a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a [[Raney nickel|catalyst for hydrogenation]], [[cathode]]s for batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/MediaCenter/NiCompounds/NI%20Compounds%202015%20v12%20FINAL.ashx?la=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180831002419/https://nickelinstitute.org/~/media/Files/MediaCenter/NiCompounds/NI%20Compounds%202015%20v12%20FINAL.ashx?la=en|url-status=dead|archive-date=2018-08-31|title=Nickel Compounds – The Inside Story|last=|first=|date=|website=Nickel Institute|access-date=}}</ref> Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have [[enzymes]] with nickel as an [[active site]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mulrooney|first1=Scott B.|last2=Hausinger|first2=Robert P.|date=2003-06-01|title=Nickel uptake and utilization by microorganisms|url=https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/27/2-3/239/614619|journal=FEMS Microbiology Reviews|language=en|volume=27|issue=2–3|pages=239–261|doi=10.1016/S0168-6445(03)00042-1|pmid=12829270|issn=0168-6445}}</ref>
 ==Properties==
@@ Line 84: / Line 84: @@
 Numerous Ni(III) compounds are known, with the first such examples being Nickel(III) trihalophosphines (Ni<sub>III</sub>(PPh<sub>3</sub>)X<sub>3</sub>).<ref name = "Jensen">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/zaac.19362290304| title = Zur Stereochemie des koordinativ vierwertigen Nickels| journal = Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie| volume = 229| issue = 3| pages = 265–281| date = 1936| last1 = Jensen | first1 = K. A.}}</ref> Further, Ni(III) forms simple salts with fluoride<ref name = "Ni(III)F">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1039/DT9730001995| title = Fluorine compounds of nickel(III)| journal = Journal of the Chemical Society, Dalton Transactions| issue = 19| page = 1995| date = 1973| last1 = Court | first1 = T. L.| last2 = Dove | first2 = M. F. A.}}</ref> or [[Nickel(III) oxide|oxide]] ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by σ-donor ligands such as [[thiol]]s and [[phosphine]]s.<ref name="InorgChemH" />
-Ni(IV) is present in the mixed oxide {{chem|BaNiO|3}}, while Ni(III) is present in [[nickel oxide hydroxide]], which is used as the [[cathode]] in many [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable batteries]], including [[nickel-cadmium]], [[nickel-iron battery|nickel-iron]], [[Nickel hydrogen battery|nickel hydrogen]], and [[nickel-metal hydride battery|nickel-metal hydride]], and used by certain manufacturers in [[Li-ion]] batteries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html|title=Imara Corporation Launches; New Li-ion Battery Technology for High-Power Applications|date=December 18, 2008|publisher=Green Car Congress|access-date=January 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222102915/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html|archive-date=December 22, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state of nickel and very few compounds are known to date.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Spokoyny|first1=Alexander M.|last2=Li|first2=Tina C.|last3=Farha|first3=Omar K.|last4=Machan|first4=Charles M.|last5=She|first5=Chunxing|last6=Stern|first6=Charlotte L.|last7=Marks|first7=Tobin J.|last8=Hupp|first8=Joseph T.|last9=Mirkin|first9=Chad A.|title=Electronic Tuning of Nickel-Based Bis(dicarbollide) Redox Shuttles in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells|journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.|date=28 June 2010|pages=5339–5343|doi=10.1002/anie.201002181|volume=49|issue=31|pmid=20586090}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hawthorne|first1=M. Frederick|title=(3)-1,2-Dicarbollyl Complexes of Nickel(III) and Nickel(IV)|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |date=1967|volume=89|issue=2|pages=470–471|doi=10.1021/ja00978a065}}</ref><ref name="NiIV Science">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.aaa4526| pmid = 25766226| title = Design, synthesis, and carbon-heteroatom coupling reactions of organometallic nickel(IV) complexes| journal = Science| volume = 347| issue = 6227| pages = 1218–20| date = 2015| last1 = Camasso | first1 = N. M.| last2 = Sanford | first2 = M. S.| bibcode = 2015Sci...347.1218C| citeseerx = 10.1.1.897.9273}}</ref><ref name="NiIV dap">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1021/ja00753a022| title = Nickel(II) and nickel(IV) complexes of 2,6-diacetylpyridine dioxime| journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society| volume = 93| issue = 24| pages = 6469–6475| date = 1971| last1 = Baucom | first1 = E. I. | last2 = Drago | first2 = R. S. }}</ref>
+Ni(IV) is present in the mixed oxide {{chem|BaNiO|3}}, while Ni(III) is present in [[nickel oxide hydroxide]], which is used as the [[cathode]] in many [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable batteries]], including [[nickel-cadmium]], [[nickel-iron battery|nickel-iron]], [[Nickel hydrogen battery|nickel hydrogen]], and [[nickel-metal hydride battery|nickel-metal hydride]], and used by certain manufacturers in [[Li-ion]] batteries.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html|title=Imara Corporation Launches; New Li-ion Battery Technology for High-Power Applications|date=December 18, 2008|publisher=Green Car Congress|access-date=January 22, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081222102915/http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html|archive-date=December 22, 2008|url-status=live}}</ref> Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state of nickel and very few compounds are known to date.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Spokoyny|first1=Alexander M.|last2=Li|first2=Tina C.|last3=Farha|first3=Omar K.|last4=Machan|first4=Charles M.|last5=She|first5=Chunxing|last6=Stern|first6=Charlotte L.|last7=Marks|first7=Tobin J.|last8=Hupp|first8=Joseph T.|last9=Mirkin|first9=Chad A.|title=Electronic Tuning of Nickel-Based Bis(dicarbollide) Redox Shuttles in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells|journal=Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.|date=28 June 2010|pages=5339–5343|doi=10.1002/anie.201002181|volume=49|issue=31|pmid=20586090}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hawthorne|first1=M. Frederick|title=(3)-1,2-Dicarbollyl Complexes of Nickel(III) and Nickel(IV)|journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |date=1967|volume=89|issue=2|pages=470–471|doi=10.1021/ja00978a065}}</ref><ref name="NiIV Science">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.aaa4526| pmid = 25766226| title = Design, synthesis, and carbon-heteroatom coupling reactions of organometallic nickel(IV) complexes| journal = Science| volume = 347| issue = 6227| pages = 1218–20| date = 2015| last1 = Camasso | first1 = N. M.| last2 = Sanford | first2 = M. S.| bibcode = 2015Sci...347.1218C| citeseerx = 10.1.1.897.9273| s2cid = 206634533}}</ref><ref name="NiIV dap">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1021/ja00753a022| title = Nickel(II) and nickel(IV) complexes of 2,6-diacetylpyridine dioxime| journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society| volume = 93| issue = 24| pages = 6469–6475| date = 1971| last1 = Baucom | first1 = E. I. | last2 = Drago | first2 = R. S. }}</ref>
 {{clear}}
@@ Line 150: / Line 150: @@
 The global production of nickel is presently used as follows: 68% in stainless steel; 10% in nonferrous [[alloy]]s; 9% in [[electroplating]]; 7% in alloy steel; 3% in foundries; and 4% other uses (including batteries).<ref name="Nickel Use In Society" />
-Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer products, including [[stainless steel]], [[alnico]] magnets, coinage, [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable batteries]], electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing fixtures,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/americanplumbing00newyrich|title=American Plumbing Practice: From the Engineering Record (Prior to 1887 the Sanitary Engineer.) A Selected Reprint of Articles Describing Notable Plumbing Installations in the United States, and Questions and Answers on Problems Arising in Plumbing and House Draining. With Five Hundred and Thirty-six Illustrations|date=1896|publisher=Engineering record|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanplumbing00newyrich/page/119 119]|access-date=May 28, 2016}}</ref> and special alloys such as [[permalloy]], [[elinvar]], and [[invar]]. It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit. It is widely used in many other alloys, including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold ([[Inconel]], [[Incoloy]], [[Monel]], [[Nimonic]]).<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/?id=IePhmnbmRWkC|title = ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys|first = Joseph R.|last = Davis|publisher=ASM International|date = 2000|isbn = 978-0-87170-685-0|pages = 7–13|chapter = Uses of Nickel}}</ref>
+Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer products, including [[stainless steel]], [[alnico]] magnets, coinage, [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable batteries]], electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, plating on plumbing fixtures,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/americanplumbing00newyrich|title=American Plumbing Practice: From the Engineering Record (Prior to 1887 the Sanitary Engineer.) A Selected Reprint of Articles Describing Notable Plumbing Installations in the United States, and Questions and Answers on Problems Arising in Plumbing and House Draining. With Five Hundred and Thirty-six Illustrations|date=1896|publisher=Engineering record|page=[https://archive.org/details/americanplumbing00newyrich/page/119 119]|access-date=May 28, 2016}}</ref> and special alloys such as [[permalloy]], [[elinvar]], and [[invar]]. It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness, and elastic limit. It is widely used in many other alloys, including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold ([[Inconel]], [[Incoloy]], [[Monel]], [[Nimonic]]).<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC|title = ASM Specialty Handbook: Nickel, Cobalt, and Their Alloys|first = Joseph R.|last = Davis|publisher=ASM International|date = 2000|isbn = 978-0-87170-685-0|pages = 7–13|chapter = Uses of Nickel}}</ref>
 [[File:MagnetEZ.jpg|thumb|left|A "horseshoe magnet" made of [[alnico]] nickel alloy.]]
@@ Line 164: / Line 164: @@
 Nickel is a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that, in the presence of a [[magnetic field]], the material undergoes a small change in length.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130905155229/http://aml.seas.ucla.edu/research/areas/magnetostrictive/overview.htm Magnetostrictive Materials Overview]. [[University of California, Los Angeles]].</ref><ref>{{cite book |publisher=Umi Dissertation Publishing| title = High Frequency High Amplitude Magnetic Field Driving System for Magnetostrictive Actuators | first1 =Raghavendra | last1 = Angara | page = 5| isbn = 9781109187533 | date = 2009 }}</ref> The [[magnetostriction]] of nickel is on the order of 50&nbsp;ppm and is negative, indicating that it contracts.
-Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented [[tungsten carbide]] or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6% to 12% by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion-resistance to the cemented parts, although the hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Soviet Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics| title = Structure and properties of tungsten carbide hard alloys with an alloyed nickel binder| doi = 10.1007/BF00796252|date = 1992|last1 = Cheburaeva|first1 = R. F.|last2 = Chaporova|first2 = I. N.|last3 = Krasina|first3 = T. I.|volume = 31|pages = 423–425|issue=5}}</ref>
+Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented [[tungsten carbide]] or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6% to 12% by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion-resistance to the cemented parts, although the hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Soviet Powder Metallurgy and Metal Ceramics| title = Structure and properties of tungsten carbide hard alloys with an alloyed nickel binder| doi = 10.1007/BF00796252|date = 1992|last1 = Cheburaeva|first1 = R. F.|last2 = Chaporova|first2 = I. N.|last3 = Krasina|first3 = T. I.|volume = 31|pages = 423–425|issue=5| s2cid = 135714029}}</ref>
 {{chem|63|Ni}}, with its [[half-life]] of 100.1 years, is useful in [[krytron]] devices as a [[beta particle]] (high-speed [[electron]]) emitter to make [[ionization]] by the keep-alive electrode more reliable.<ref>{{cite website|title=Krytron Pulse Power Switching Tubes|url=http://www.siliconinvestigations.com/KRYT/Krytron.HTM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716071203/http://www.siliconinvestigations.com/KRYT/Krytron.HTM|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-07-16|publisher=Silicon Investigations|date=2011 }}</ref>
@@ Line 174: / Line 174: @@
 == Biological role ==
-Although it was not recognized until the 1970s, nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some plants, [[eubacteria]], [[archaebacteria]], and [[fungi]].<ref name="Sigel">{{cite book|title=Nickel and Its Surprising Impact in Nature|editor=Astrid Sigel|editor2=Helmut Sigel|editor3=Roland K. O. Sigel |publisher=Wiley |date=2008 |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=2 |isbn=978-0-470-01671-8 }}</ref><ref name="Sydor">{{cite book|last1=Sydor|first1=Andrew|last2=Zamble|first2=Deborah|editor1-last=Banci|editor1-first=Lucia|title=Nickel Metallomics: General Themes Guiding Nickel Homeostasis|date=2013|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht|isbn=978-94-007-5561-1|pages=375–416}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Zamble, Deborah |authorlink1=Deborah Zamble |author2=Rowińska-Żyrek, Magdalena |author3=Kozlowski, Henryk |title=The Biological Chemistry of Nickel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQifDgAAQBAJ|date=2017|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-1-78262-498-1}}</ref> Nickel enzymes such as [[urease]] are considered virulence factors in some organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Covacci|first=Antonello|last2=Telford|first2=John L.|last3=Giudice|first3=Giuseppe Del|last4=Parsonnet|first4=Julie|last5=Rappuoli|first5=Rino|date=1999-05-21|title=''Helicobacter pylori'' Virulence and Genetic Geography|journal=Science|volume=284|issue=5418|pages=1328–1333|doi=10.1126/science.284.5418.1328|pmid=10334982|bibcode=1999Sci...284.1328C|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/dacc1f9477e0a97d6923d0dd9057234031fa9449}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cox|first=Gary M.|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Jean|last3=Cole|first3=Garry T.|last4=Casadevall|first4=Arturo|last5=Perfect|first5=John R.|date=2000-02-01|title=Urease as a Virulence Factor in Experimental Cryptococcosis|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=68|issue=2|pages=443–448|doi=10.1128/IAI.68.2.443-448.2000|pmid=10639402|pmc=97161}}</ref> Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of [[urea]] to form ammonia and [[carbamate]].<ref name="Sydor"/><ref name="Sigel"/> The [[NiFe hydrogenase]]s can catalyze the oxidation of {{chem|H|2}} to form protons and electrons, and can also catalyze the reverse reaction, the reduction of protons to form hydrogen gas.<ref name="Sydor"/><ref name="Sigel"/> A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, [[cofactor F430]], is present in methyl [[coenzyme M]] reductase, which can catalyze the formation of methane, or the reverse reaction, in [[methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] (in '''+1''' oxidation state).<ref>
+Although it was not recognized until the 1970s, nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some plants, [[eubacteria]], [[archaebacteria]], and [[fungi]].<ref name="Sigel">{{cite book|title=Nickel and Its Surprising Impact in Nature|editor=Astrid Sigel|editor2=Helmut Sigel|editor3=Roland K. O. Sigel |publisher=Wiley |date=2008 |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|volume=2 |isbn=978-0-470-01671-8 }}</ref><ref name="Sydor">{{cite book|last1=Sydor|first1=Andrew|last2=Zamble|first2=Deborah|editor1-last=Banci|editor1-first=Lucia|title=Nickel Metallomics: General Themes Guiding Nickel Homeostasis|journal=Metal Ions in Life Sciences|date=2013|volume=12|publisher=Springer|location=Dordrecht|isbn=978-94-007-5561-1|pages=375–416|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_11|pmid=23595678}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Zamble, Deborah |authorlink1=Deborah Zamble |author2=Rowińska-Żyrek, Magdalena |author3=Kozlowski, Henryk |title=The Biological Chemistry of Nickel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQifDgAAQBAJ|date=2017|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=978-1-78262-498-1}}</ref> Nickel enzymes such as [[urease]] are considered virulence factors in some organisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Covacci|first1=Antonello|last2=Telford|first2=John L.|last3=Giudice|first3=Giuseppe Del|last4=Parsonnet|first4=Julie|last5=Rappuoli|first5=Rino|date=1999-05-21|title=''Helicobacter pylori'' Virulence and Genetic Geography|journal=Science|volume=284|issue=5418|pages=1328–1333|doi=10.1126/science.284.5418.1328|pmid=10334982|bibcode=1999Sci...284.1328C|s2cid=10376008|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/dacc1f9477e0a97d6923d0dd9057234031fa9449}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cox|first1=Gary M.|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Jean|last3=Cole|first3=Garry T.|last4=Casadevall|first4=Arturo|last5=Perfect|first5=John R.|date=2000-02-01|title=Urease as a Virulence Factor in Experimental Cryptococcosis|journal=Infection and Immunity|volume=68|issue=2|pages=443–448|doi=10.1128/IAI.68.2.443-448.2000|pmid=10639402|pmc=97161}}</ref> Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of [[urea]] to form ammonia and [[carbamate]].<ref name="Sydor"/><ref name="Sigel"/> The [[NiFe hydrogenase]]s can catalyze the oxidation of {{chem|H|2}} to form protons and electrons, and can also catalyze the reverse reaction, the reduction of protons to form hydrogen gas.<ref name="Sydor"/><ref name="Sigel"/> A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, [[cofactor F430]], is present in methyl [[coenzyme M]] reductase, which can catalyze the formation of methane, or the reverse reaction, in [[methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] (in '''+1''' oxidation state).<ref>
 {{cite book
 |first1=Ragdale
@@ Line 263: / Line 263: @@
 The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health. Most of the nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumulative poison, but larger doses or chronic inhalation exposure may be toxic, even [[carcinogen]]ic, and constitute an [[occupational hazard]].<ref>{{cite book|last1 = Butticè|first1 = Claudio|editor1-last = Colditz|editor1-first = Graham A.|title = The SAGE Encyclopedia of Cancer and Society|date = 2015|publisher = SAGE Publications, Inc.|location = Thousand Oaks|isbn = 9781483345734|pages = 828–831|edition = Second|chapter = Nickel Compounds}}</ref>
-Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens<ref name="Nickel and nickel compounds">IARC (2012). [https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-10.pdf "Nickel and nickel compounds"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044638/https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-10.pdf |date=September 20, 2017 }} in ''IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum''. Volume 100C. pp. 169–218..</ref><ref name="Reg 1272/2008">Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures, Amending and Repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 [OJ L 353, 31.12.2008, p. 1]. [http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1272 Annex VI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314212328/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1272 |date=March 14, 2019 }}. Accessed July 13, 2017.</ref><ref name="GHS">[https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-REv5e.pdf Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829031509/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-Rev5e.pdf |date=August 29, 2017 }}, 5th ed., United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2013..</ref><ref name="Carcinogens">National Toxicology Program. (2016). [https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html "Report on Carcinogens"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044600/https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html |date=September 20, 2017 }}, 14th ed. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service..</ref> based on increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers.<ref name="Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man">{{cite journal|pmid=2185539|jstor=40965957|year=1990|title=Report of the International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=16|issue=1 Spec No|pages=1–82|doi=10.5271/sjweh.1813|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice.<ref name="Studies of Nickel Subsulfide">{{cite journal|pmid=12594522|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Subsulfide (CAS No. 12035-72-2) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=453|pages=1–365|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=12594524|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Oxide (CAS No. 1313-99-1) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=451|pages=1–381|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref> The human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22158127|pmc=3243677|year=2011|last1=Cogliano|first1=V. J|title=Preventable exposures associated with human cancers|journal=JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=103|issue=24|pages=1827–39|last2=Baan|first2=R|last3=Straif|first3=K|last4=Grosse|first4=Y|last5=Lauby-Secretan|first5=B|last6=El Ghissassi|first6=F|last7=Bouvard|first7=V|last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa|first8=L|last9=Guha|first9=N|last10=Freeman|first10=C|last11=Galichet|first11=L|last12=Wild|first12=C. P|doi=10.1093/jnci/djr483}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=17692353|year=2007|last1=Heim|first1=K. E|title=Oral carcinogenicity study with nickel sulfate hexahydrate in Fischer 344 rats|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=224|issue=2|pages=126–37|last2=Bates|first2=H. K|last3=Rush|first3=R. E|last4=Oller|first4=A. R|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2007.06.024}}</ref> Nickel metal is classified as a suspect carcinogen;<ref name="Nickel and nickel compounds" /><ref name="Reg 1272/2008" /><ref name="GHS" /> there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers predominantly exposed to metallic nickel<ref name="Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man" /> and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder.<ref name="Inhalation carcinogenicity">{{cite journal|pmid=18822311|year=2008|last1=Oller|first1=A. R|title=Inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder in Wistar rats|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=233|issue=2|pages=262–75|last2=Kirkpatrick|first2=D. T|last3=Radovsky|first3=A|last4=Bates|first4=H. K|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2008.08.017}}</ref> In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and nickel metal, increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were observed.<ref name="Carcinogens" /><ref name="Studies of Nickel Subsulfide" /><ref name="Inhalation carcinogenicity" /><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=12587012|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate (CAS No. 10101-97-0) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=454|pages=1–380|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref> In rat studies, oral ingestion of water-soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality effects in pregnant animals.<ref>Springborn Laboratories Inc. (2000). "An Oral (Gavage) Two-generation Reproduction Toxicity Study in Sprague-Dawley Rats with Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate." Final Report. Springborn Laboratories Inc., Spencerville. SLI Study No. 3472.4.</ref> Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=16539171|year=2006|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Genital malformations in newborns of female nickel-refinery workers|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=32|issue=1|pages=41–50|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Nieboer|first4=E|last5=Thomassen|first5=Y|last6=Odland|first6=J. O|doi=10.5271/sjweh.975|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18365800|year=2008|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Spontaneous abortions among nickel-exposed female refinery workers|journal=International Journal of Environmental Health Research|volume=18|issue=2|pages=99–115|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=Jon Ø|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.1080/09603120701498295}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18165195|year=2007|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Small-for-gestational-age newborns of female refinery workers exposed to nickel|journal=International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health|volume=20|issue=4|pages=327–38|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=J. O|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.2478/v10001-007-0034-0|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3e30d0b39ab053eb3be677541ebb2d12ec737060}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18655106|year=2008|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Maternal nickel exposure and congenital musculoskeletal defects|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|volume=51|issue=11|pages=825–33|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=J. O|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.1002/ajim.20609}}</ref>
+Nickel compounds are classified as human carcinogens<ref name="Nickel and nickel compounds">IARC (2012). [https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-10.pdf "Nickel and nickel compounds"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044638/https://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol100C/mono100C-10.pdf |date=September 20, 2017 }} in ''IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum''. Volume 100C. pp. 169–218..</ref><ref name="Reg 1272/2008">Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Substances and Mixtures, Amending and Repealing Directives 67/548/EEC and 1999/45/EC and amending Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 [OJ L 353, 31.12.2008, p. 1]. [http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008R1272 Annex VI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314212328/https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008R1272 |date=March 14, 2019 }}. Accessed July 13, 2017.</ref><ref name="GHS">[https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-REv5e.pdf Globally Harmonised System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829031509/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_rev05/English/ST-SG-AC10-30-Rev5e.pdf |date=August 29, 2017 }}, 5th ed., United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2013..</ref><ref name="Carcinogens">National Toxicology Program. (2016). [https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html "Report on Carcinogens"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920044600/https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/pubhealth/roc/index-1.html |date=September 20, 2017 }}, 14th ed. Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service..</ref> based on increased respiratory cancer risks observed in epidemiological studies of sulfidic ore refinery workers.<ref name="Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man">{{cite journal|pmid=2185539|jstor=40965957|year=1990|title=Report of the International Committee on Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=16|issue=1 Spec No|pages=1–82|doi=10.5271/sjweh.1813|doi-access=free}}</ref> This is supported by the positive results of the NTP bioassays with Ni sub-sulfide and Ni oxide in rats and mice.<ref name="Studies of Nickel Subsulfide">{{cite journal|pmid=12594522|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Subsulfide (CAS No. 12035-72-2) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=453|pages=1–365|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=12594524|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Oxide (CAS No. 1313-99-1) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=451|pages=1–381|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref> The human and animal data consistently indicate a lack of carcinogenicity via the oral route of exposure and limit the carcinogenicity of nickel compounds to respiratory tumours after inhalation.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22158127|pmc=3243677|year=2011|last1=Cogliano|first1=V. J|title=Preventable exposures associated with human cancers|journal=JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=103|issue=24|pages=1827–39|last2=Baan|first2=R|last3=Straif|first3=K|last4=Grosse|first4=Y|last5=Lauby-Secretan|first5=B|last6=El Ghissassi|first6=F|last7=Bouvard|first7=V|last8=Benbrahim-Tallaa|first8=L|last9=Guha|first9=N|last10=Freeman|first10=C|last11=Galichet|first11=L|last12=Wild|first12=C. P|doi=10.1093/jnci/djr483}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=17692353|year=2007|last1=Heim|first1=K. E|title=Oral carcinogenicity study with nickel sulfate hexahydrate in Fischer 344 rats|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=224|issue=2|pages=126–37|last2=Bates|first2=H. K|last3=Rush|first3=R. E|last4=Oller|first4=A. R|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2007.06.024}}</ref> Nickel metal is classified as a suspect carcinogen;<ref name="Nickel and nickel compounds" /><ref name="Reg 1272/2008" /><ref name="GHS" /> there is consistency between the absence of increased respiratory cancer risks in workers predominantly exposed to metallic nickel<ref name="Nickel Carcinogenesis in Man" /> and the lack of respiratory tumours in a rat lifetime inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder.<ref name="Inhalation carcinogenicity">{{cite journal|pmid=18822311|year=2008|last1=Oller|first1=A. R|title=Inhalation carcinogenicity study with nickel metal powder in Wistar rats|journal=Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology|volume=233|issue=2|pages=262–75|last2=Kirkpatrick|first2=D. T|last3=Radovsky|first3=A|last4=Bates|first4=H. K|doi=10.1016/j.taap.2008.08.017}}</ref> In the rodent inhalation studies with various nickel compounds and nickel metal, increased lung inflammations with and without bronchial lymph node hyperplasia or fibrosis were observed.<ref name="Carcinogens" /><ref name="Studies of Nickel Subsulfide" /><ref name="Inhalation carcinogenicity" /><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=12587012|year=1996|title=NTP Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate (CAS No. 10101-97-0) in F344 Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies)|journal=National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series|volume=454|pages=1–380|author1=National Toxicology Program}}</ref> In rat studies, oral ingestion of water-soluble nickel salts can trigger perinatal mortality effects in pregnant animals.<ref>Springborn Laboratories Inc. (2000). "An Oral (Gavage) Two-generation Reproduction Toxicity Study in Sprague-Dawley Rats with Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate." Final Report. Springborn Laboratories Inc., Spencerville. SLI Study No. 3472.4.</ref> Whether these effects are relevant to humans is unclear as epidemiological studies of highly exposed female workers have not shown adverse developmental toxicity effects.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=16539171|year=2006|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Genital malformations in newborns of female nickel-refinery workers|journal=Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health|volume=32|issue=1|pages=41–50|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Nieboer|first4=E|last5=Thomassen|first5=Y|last6=Odland|first6=J. O|doi=10.5271/sjweh.975|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18365800|year=2008|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Spontaneous abortions among nickel-exposed female refinery workers|journal=International Journal of Environmental Health Research|volume=18|issue=2|pages=99–115|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=Jon Ø|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.1080/09603120701498295|s2cid=24791972}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18165195|year=2007|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Small-for-gestational-age newborns of female refinery workers exposed to nickel|journal=International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health|volume=20|issue=4|pages=327–38|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=J. O|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.2478/v10001-007-0034-0|s2cid=1439478|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3e30d0b39ab053eb3be677541ebb2d12ec737060}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=18655106|year=2008|last1=Vaktskjold|first1=A|title=Maternal nickel exposure and congenital musculoskeletal defects|journal=American Journal of Industrial Medicine|volume=51|issue=11|pages=825–33|last2=Talykova|first2=L. V|last3=Chashchin|first3=V. P|last4=Odland|first4=J. O|last5=Nieboer|first5=E|doi=10.1002/ajim.20609}}</ref>
 People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, and contact with skin or eye. The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set the legal limit ([[permissible exposure limit]]) for the workplace at 1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> per 8-hour workday, excluding nickel carbonyl. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) specifies the [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 0.015&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup> per 8-hour workday. At 10&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>, nickel is [[IDLH|immediately dangerous to life and health]].<ref>{{cite web|title = CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Nickel metal and other compounds (as Ni)|url = https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0445.html|website = www.cdc.gov|access-date = 2015-11-20|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170718164956/https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0445.html|archive-date = July 18, 2017|url-status = live}}</ref> [[Nickel carbonyl]] [{{chem|Ni(CO)|4|}}] is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal and the off-gassing of [[carbon monoxide]] from the carbonyl functional groups; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stellman, Jeanne Mager|title=Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety: Chemical, industries and occupations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT133|access-date=January 9, 2012|date=1998|publisher=International Labour Organization|isbn=978-92-2-109816-4|pages=133–|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529043242/http://books.google.com/books?id=nDhpLa1rl44C&pg=PT133|archive-date=May 29, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Clinical Toxicology|date = 1999|volume = 37|issue = 2|pages =239–258| title =Nickel|first1=Donald G.|last1=Barceloux|first2= Donald |last2= Barceloux|doi =10.1081/CLT-100102423|pmid =10382559}}</ref>
-[[Sensitization (immunology)|Sensitized]] individuals may show a skin contact [[Nickel allergy (nickel allergic contact dermatitis)|allergy to nickel]] known as a contact [[dermatitis]]. Highly sensitized individuals may also react to foods with high nickel content.<ref name=aad/> Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with [[Dyshidrosis|pompholyx]]. Nickel is the top confirmed contact allergen worldwide, partly due to its use in jewelry for [[pierced ear]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Contact Dermatitis |date=2007 |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=287–99 |title= The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population—prevalence and main findings |author=Thyssen J. P. |author2=Linneberg A. |author3=Menné T.|author4=Johansen J. D. |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x |pmid=17937743}}</ref> Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or with low-release nickel<ref>[http://www.nipera.org/WorkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/DermalExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx Dermal Exposure: Nickel Alloys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222055840/http://www.nipera.org/WorkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/DermalExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx |date=February 22, 2016 }} Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), accessed 2016 Feb.11</ref> to address this problem. The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the [[European Union]]. In 2002, researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be the result of a [[Galvanization|galvanic]] reaction.<ref>{{cite journal|first = O.|last = Nestle|last2=Speidel|first2=H.|last3=Speidel|first3=M. O.|title = High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins|journal=Nature|volume = 419|issue = 6903|page = 132|date = 2002|pmid = 12226655|doi = 10.1038/419132a|bibcode = 2002Natur.419..132N }}</ref> Nickel was voted [[Allergen of the Year]] in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-alle.htm| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20090203033929/http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-alle.htm| archivedate =2009-02-03|title = Nickel Named 2008 Contact Allergen of the Year| date = June 3, 2008|author=Dow, Lea |website=Nickel Allergy Information}}</ref> In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a position statement on the safety of nickel: "Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis, which includes nickel sensitization, accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and affects nearly 72.29 million people."<ref name=aad>[https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nickel%20Sensitivity.pdf Position Statement on Nickel Sensitivity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908083534/https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nickel%20Sensitivity.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. American Academy of Dermatology(August 22, 2015)</ref>
+[[Sensitization (immunology)|Sensitized]] individuals may show a skin contact [[Nickel allergy (nickel allergic contact dermatitis)|allergy to nickel]] known as a contact [[dermatitis]]. Highly sensitized individuals may also react to foods with high nickel content.<ref name=aad/> Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with [[Dyshidrosis|pompholyx]]. Nickel is the top confirmed contact allergen worldwide, partly due to its use in jewelry for [[pierced ear]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Contact Dermatitis |date=2007 |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=287–99 |title= The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population—prevalence and main findings |author=Thyssen J. P. |author2=Linneberg A. |author3=Menné T.|author4=Johansen J. D. |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x |pmid=17937743|s2cid=44890665 }}</ref> Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or with low-release nickel<ref>[http://www.nipera.org/WorkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/DermalExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx Dermal Exposure: Nickel Alloys] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222055840/http://www.nipera.org/WorkplaceGuide/ToxicityOfNickelCompounds/NickelAlloys/DermalExposureNickel%20Alloys.aspx |date=February 22, 2016 }} Nickel Producers Environmental Research Association (NiPERA), accessed 2016 Feb.11</ref> to address this problem. The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the [[European Union]]. In 2002, researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be the result of a [[Galvanization|galvanic]] reaction.<ref>{{cite journal|first1 = O.|last1 = Nestle|last2=Speidel|first2=H.|last3=Speidel|first3=M. O.|title = High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins|journal=Nature|volume = 419|issue = 6903|page = 132|date = 2002|pmid = 12226655|doi = 10.1038/419132a|bibcode = 2002Natur.419..132N |s2cid = 52866209}}</ref> Nickel was voted [[Allergen of the Year]] in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-alle.htm| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20090203033929/http://www.nickelallergyinformation.com/2008/06/nickel-named-2008-contact-alle.htm| archivedate =2009-02-03|title = Nickel Named 2008 Contact Allergen of the Year| date = June 3, 2008|author=Dow, Lea |website=Nickel Allergy Information}}</ref> In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a position statement on the safety of nickel: "Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis, which includes nickel sensitization, accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and affects nearly 72.29 million people."<ref name=aad>[https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nickel%20Sensitivity.pdf Position Statement on Nickel Sensitivity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908083534/https://www.aad.org/Forms/Policies/Uploads/PS/PS-Nickel%20Sensitivity.pdf |date=September 8, 2015 }}. American Academy of Dermatology(August 22, 2015)</ref>
-Reports show that both the nickel-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the up-regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular [[ascorbate]]. The addition of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal-induced stabilization of HIF-1- and HIF-1α-dependent gene expression.<ref>{{cite journal|first = k.|last = Salnikow|display-authors=4|author2=Donald, S. P. |author3=Bruick, R. K. |author4=Zhitkovich, A. |author5=Phang, J. M. |author6= Kasprzak, K. S. |title = Depletion of intracellular ascorbate by the carcinogenic metal nickel and cobalt results in the induction of hypoxic stress|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume = 279|pmid = 15271983|doi=10.1074/jbc.M403057200|issue = 39|pages = 40337–44 |date=September 2004|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first = K. K.|last = Das|last2= Das |first2=S. N. |last3=Dhundasi|first3=S. A.|title = Nickel, its adverse health effects and oxidative stress|journal=Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume = 128|pages = 117–131|date = 2008|pmid=19106437|url = http://www.icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2008/october/1005.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090410090734/http://www.icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2008/october/1005.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date = 2009-04-10| access-date= August 22, 2011 |issue = 4}}</ref>
+Reports show that both the nickel-induced activation of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the up-regulation of hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular [[ascorbate]]. The addition of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal-induced stabilization of HIF-1- and HIF-1α-dependent gene expression.<ref>{{cite journal|first = k.|last = Salnikow|display-authors=4|author2=Donald, S. P. |author3=Bruick, R. K. |author4=Zhitkovich, A. |author5=Phang, J. M. |author6= Kasprzak, K. S. |title = Depletion of intracellular ascorbate by the carcinogenic metal nickel and cobalt results in the induction of hypoxic stress|journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume = 279|pmid = 15271983|doi=10.1074/jbc.M403057200|issue = 39|pages = 40337–44 |date=September 2004|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1 = K. K.|last1 = Das|last2= Das |first2=S. N. |last3=Dhundasi|first3=S. A.|title = Nickel, its adverse health effects and oxidative stress|journal=Indian Journal of Medical Research |volume = 128|pages = 117–131|date = 2008|pmid=19106437|url = http://www.icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2008/october/1005.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090410090734/http://www.icmr.nic.in/ijmr/2008/october/1005.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-date = 2009-04-10| access-date= August 22, 2011 |issue = 4}}</ref>
 ==References==