User:MartinZ/sandbox/Human

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
This article is about humans as a species. For other uses, see Human (disambiguation), Human nature, and Human condition.

Human
Ma
↓
Middle Pleistocene
– Recent
An adult human male (left) and female (right) from Thailand

Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Suborder: Haplorhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species:
H. sapiens
Binomial name
Homo sapiens
Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies

Homo sapiens idaltu
White et al., 2003
Homo sapiens sapiens

Homo sapiens population density
Synonyms
Species synonymy[1]
  • aethiopicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • americanus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • arabicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • aurignacensis
    Klaatsch & Hauser, 1910
  • australasicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • cafer
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • capensis
    Broom, 1917
  • columbicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • cro-magnonensis
    Gregory, 1921
  • drennani
    Kleinschmidt, 1931
  • eurafricanus
    (Sergi, 1911)
  • grimaldiensis
    Gregory, 1921
  • grimaldii
    Lapouge, 1906
  • hottentotus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • hyperboreus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • indicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • japeticus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • melaninus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • monstrosus
    Linnaeus, 1758
  • neptunianus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • palestinus
    McCown & Keith, 1932
  • patagonus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • priscus
    Lapouge, 1899
  • proto-aethiopicus
    Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1915
  • scythicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • sinicus
    Bory de St. Vincent, 1825
  • spelaeus
    Lapouge, 1899
  • troglodytes
    Linnaeus, 1758
  • wadjakensis
    Dubois, 1921

Modern humans (

societies.[3][4]

Early hominins—particularly the

anatomically modern Homo sapiens in Africa about 200,000 years ago.[6][7] They began to exhibit evidence of behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago. In several waves of migration, anatomically modern humans ventured out of Africa and populated most of the world.[8]

The spread of humans and

reasoning, language, problem solving, sociality, and culture through social learning. Humans use tools to a much higher degree than any other animal, are the only extant species known to build fires and cook their food, and are the only extant species to clothe themselves and create and use numerous other technologies and arts
.

Humans are uniquely adept at utilizing systems of symbolic communication (such as language and art) for self-expression and the exchange of ideas, and for organizing themselves into purposeful groups. Humans create complex

mythology, religion, anthropology
, and numerous other fields of knowledge.

Though most of human existence has been sustained by hunting and gathering in band societies,[10] increasing numbers of human societies began to practice sedentary agriculture approximately some 10,000 years ago,[11] domesticating plants and animals, thus allowing for the growth of civilization. These human societies subsequently expanded in size, establishing various forms of government, religion, and culture around the world, unifying people within regions to form states and empires. The rapid advancement of scientific and medical understanding in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the development of fuel-driven technologies and increased lifespans, causing the human population to rise exponentially. By 2014, the global human population was estimated to be around 7.2 billion and rising.[12][13] By February 2016, the United States Census Bureau had estimated that the world population had exceeded 7.3 billion.[14]

Etymology and definition

Further information: Man (word) and Names for the human species

In common usage, the word "human" generally refers to the only extant species of the genus Homo — anatomically and behaviorally modern Homo sapiens. Its usage often designates differences between that species as a whole and any other group or entity.[citation needed]

In scientific terms, the meanings of "

anatomically modern humans and Archaic Homo sapiens
, the earliest fossil members of the species.

The English adjective human is a

Proto-Germanic mannaz, from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root man-.[citation needed
]

The species

Homo is a learned 18th century derivation from Latin homō "man," ultimately "earthly being" (Old Latin hemō a cognate to Old English guma "man," from PIE dʰǵʰemon-, meaning "earth" or "ground").[18] The species-name sapiens means "wise" or "sapient." Note that the Latin word homo refers to humans of either gender, and that sapiens is the singular form (while there is no such word as sapien).[19]

History

Evolution and range

Main article: Human evolution
Further information:
Homo (genus), and Timeline of human evolution

The genus

primates. Modern humans, defined as the species Homo sapiens or specifically to the single extant subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens, proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000–60,000 years ago,[20][21] Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280.[22][23]

Evidence from molecular biology

Family tree showing the extant hominoids: humans (genus Homo), chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan), gorillas (genus Gorilla), orangutans (genus Pongo), and gibbons (four genera of the family Hylobatidae: Hylobates, Hoolock, Nomascus, and Symphalangus). All except gibbons are hominids.

The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees (genus

Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first groups to split from the line leading to the humans, then gorillas (genus Gorilla) followed by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between human and chimpanzee lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Miocene epoch.[27][28] During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes.[29][30]

Evidence from the fossil record

There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee and hominin lineages.

gracile branches, possibly one of which (such as A. garhi, dating to 2.5 million years ago) is a direct ancestor of the genus Homo. [citation needed
]

The earliest members of the genus Homo are

Skhul in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago.[35]

Anatomical adaptations

Human evolution is characterized by a number of

last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are 1. bipedalism, 2. increased brain size, 3. lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), 4. decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate.[36] Other significant morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first occurring in H. erectus.[37]

australopithecines and later the genus Homo. [citation needed] There are several theories of the adaptational value of bipedalism. It is possible that bipedalism was favored because it freed up the hands for reaching and carrying food, because it saved energy during locomotion, because it enabled long distance running and hunting, or as a strategy for avoiding hyperthermia by reducing the surface exposed to direct sun.[citation needed
]

The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates – typically 1,330

solving social problems as human society became more complex.[citation needed
]

The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is primarily visible in the reduction of the male

pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring.[citation needed
]

Rise of Homo sapiens

Further information:
Archaic human admixture with modern humans, and Early human migrations
millennia
before present, the North Pole is at the center).

By the beginning of the

Denisovans. The nature of interaction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing source of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier species or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.[50] Recent studies of the human and Neanderthal genomes suggest gene flow between archaic Homo sapiens and Neanderthals and Denisovans.[51][52][53] In March 2016, studies were published that suggest that modern humans bred with hominins, including Denisovans and Neanderthals, on multiple occasions.[54]

This dispersal out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70,000 years BP from Northeast Africa. Current evidence suggests that there was only one such dispersal and that it only involved a few hundred individuals. The vast majority of humans stayed in Africa and adapted to a diverse array of environments.[55] Modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins (either through competition or hybridization). They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas at least 14,500 years BP.[56][57]

Transition to civilization

Main articles: Neolithic Revolution and Cradle of civilization
Further information: History of the world
human settlements
.

Until c. 10,000 years ago, humans lived as

band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and cooperation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society, it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.[citation needed
]

The more complex human societies, called the first

cities
. Efforts to control the flow of water for farming also led to organised governments in the new urban civilisations. The peoples of
religious structures to deal with the basic problems of human existence and organization.[59] Ancient Greece is the origin of many ideas and concepts that are central to Western culture, such as Western philosophy, democracy, as well as major scientific, mathematical, and literary advances.[60]
Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in West Asia, and Hinduism, originating in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time. [citation needed]

The

European colonialism brought great parts of the world under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th–19th centuries promoted major innovations in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity; and government, such as representative democracy and Communism.[citation needed
]

With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern humans live in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2010, almost 2 billion humans are able to communicate with each other via the Internet,[62] and 3.3 billion by mobile phone subscriptions.[63]

Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth of

global warming in the future.[65]

Habitat and population

Further information: Human migration, Demography, and World population
The Earth, as seen from space in October 2000, showing the extent of human occupation of the planet. The bright lights signify both the most densely inhabited areas and ones financially capable of illuminating those areas.

Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to

transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places, these factors are no longer a driving force behind the growth and decline of a population. Nonetheless, the manner in which a habitat is altered is often a major determinant in population change.[citation needed
]

Technology has allowed humans to colonize all of the continents and adapt to virtually all climates. Within the last century, humans have explored Antarctica, the ocean depths, and outer space, although large-scale colonization of these environments is not yet feasible. With a population of over seven billion, humans are among the most numerous of the large mammals. Most humans (61%) live in Asia. The remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%).[citation needed]

Human habitation within closed ecological systems in hostile environments, such as Antarctica and outer space, is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with no more than thirteen humans in space at any given time.[66] Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the Moon. As of April 2024, no other celestial body has been visited by humans, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the International Space Station on October 31, 2000.[67] However, other celestial bodies have been visited by human-made objects.[68][69][70]

Since 1800, the human population has increased from one billion[71] to over seven billion,[72] In 2004, some 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people (39.7%) lived in urban areas. In February 2008, the U.N. estimated that half the world's population would live in urban areas by the end of the year.[73] Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime,[74] especially in inner city and suburban slums. Both overall population numbers and the proportion residing in cities are expected to increase significantly in the coming decades.[75]

Humans have had a dramatic effect on the

fossil fuels, and pollution, humans are thought to be the main contributor to global climate change.[77] If this continues at its current rate it is predicted that climate change will wipe out half of all plant and animal species over the next century.[78][79]

See also: City, Town, Nomad, Camping, Farm, House, Watercraft, Infrastructure, Architecture, Building, and Engineering

Biology

toenails and a ring
.
Vitruvian Man, Leonardo da Vinci's image is often used as an implied symbol of the essential symmetry of the human body, and by extension, of the universe as a whole.

Anatomy and physiology

Main article: Human body
Further information:
Anatomically modern human, and Sex differences in humans

Most aspects of human physiology are closely

immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the muscoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system.[80][81]

Humans, like most of the other

throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances.[82][83] Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances.[84]

As a consequence of bipedalism, human females have narrower

babies compared to other primates. This means that human babies must turn around as they pass through the birth canal, which other primates do not do, and it makes humans the only species where females require help from their conspecifics[clarification needed] to reduce the risks of birthing. As a partial evolutionary solution, human fetuses are born less developed and more vulnerable. Chimpanzee babies are cognitively more developed than human babies until the age of six months, when the rapid development of human brains surpasses chimpanzees. Another difference between women and chimpanzee females is that women go through the menopause and become unfertile decades before the end of their lives. All species of non-human apes are capable of giving birth until death. Menopause probably developed as it has provided an evolutionary advantage (more caring time) to young relatives.[83]

Apart from bipedalism, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in

neurons. The mental abilities of humans are remarkable compared to other apes. Humans' ability of speech is unique among primates. Humans are able to create new and complex ideas, and to develop technology, which is unprecedented among other organisms on Earth.[83]

It is estimated that the worldwide average

mass of an adult human is 54–64 kg (120–140 lbs) for females and 76–83 kg (168–183 lbs) for males.[87] Like many other conditions, body weight and body type is influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. (see obesity)[88][89]

Although humans appear hairless compared to other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has more hair follicles on his or her body than the average chimpanzee. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less heavily pigmented than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.[90] Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet.[91]

The

wisdom teeth, with some individuals having them congenitally absent.[92]

Genetics

Main article: Human genetics
Further information: Human evolutionary genetics
A graphical representation of the ideal human karyotype, including both the male and female variant of the sex chromosome (number 23).

Like all mammals, humans are a diploid eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY.[93]

One

alleles.[citation needed
]

By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. Each time a certain mutation (SNP) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a

mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.[99][100][101]

Human accelerated regions, first described in August 2006,[102][103] are a set of 49 segments of the human genome that are conserved throughout vertebrate evolution but are strikingly different in humans. They are named according to their degree of difference between humans and their nearest animal relative (chimpanzees) (HAR1 showing the largest degree of human-chimpanzee differences). Found by scanning through genomic databases of multiple species, some of these highly mutated areas may contribute to human-specific traits.[citation needed]

The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years.[104]

Life cycle

See also: Childbirth and Life expectancy
human embryo
at 5 weeks
Boy and girl before puberty
Adult man and woman in the reproductive age
Elderly
man and woman

As with other mammals,

implantation, gestation then occurs within the female's uterus
.

The zygote divides inside the female's uterus to become an embryo, which over a period of 38 weeks (9 months) of gestation becomes a fetus. After this span of time, the fully grown fetus is birthed from the woman's body and breathes independently as an infant for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognize the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the law, though some jurisdictions extend various levels of personhood earlier to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.

Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous. Painful labors lasting 24 hours or more are not uncommon and sometimes lead to the death of the mother, the child or both.

maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries.[108]

In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (6–9 pounds) in weight and 50–60 cm (20–24 inches) in height at birth.

young adulthood, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages, however, have varied across cultures and time periods. Compared to other primates, humans experience an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence, where the body grows 25% in size. Chimpanzees, for example, grow only 14%, with no pronounced spurt.[111] The presence of the growth spurt is probably necessary to keep children physically small until they are psychologically mature. Humans are one of the few species in which females undergo menopause. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age.[112][113]

For various reasons, including biological/genetic causes,

developing world the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older.[117] The number of centenarians (humans of age 100 years or older) in the world was estimated by the United Nations at 210,000 in 2002.[118] At least one person, Jeanne Calment, is known to have reached the age of 122 years;[119]
higher ages have been claimed but they are not well substantiated.

Diet

Main article: Human nutrition
Humans preparing a meal in Bali, Indonesia
Russian famine of 1921

Humans are

deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources.[122] The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of food science
.

Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with

infectious diseases
. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.

In general, humans can survive for two to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days. About 36 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to hunger.

developing countries. Worldwide over one billion people are obese,[130] while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic."[131] Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by a combination of an energy-dense high fat diet and insufficient exercise.[130]

Biological variation

Main article: Human genetic variation
People in warm climates are often slender and dark skinned, such as these Maasai men from Kenya.
People in cold climates tend to be lighter skinned such as these Inuit women from Canada.

No two humans – not even

genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood.[132][133]

Most current

human gene pool.[138][139][140]

The human body's ability to

cities. Most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability.[141]

There is biological variation in the human species — with traits such as

clinally with darker skin around the equator — where the added protection from the sun's ultraviolet radiation is thought to give an evolutionary advantage  — and lighter skin tones closer to the poles.[144][145][146][147]

The hue of human skin and hair is determined by the presence of

ultraviolet radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make.[149] Skin pigmentation of contemporary humans is clinally distributed across the planet, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation.[150][151][152]

Structure of variation

Syrian, and an Egyptian, drawing by an unknown artist after a mural of the tomb of Seti I
.
The ancestors of Native Americans, such as this Yanomami woman, crossed into the Americas from Northeast Asia, and genetic and linguistic evidence links them to North Asian populations, particularly those of East Siberia.[153]
An older adult human male European in Paris - playing chess at the Jardins du Luxembourg.

Within the human species, the greatest degree of genetic

voice is usually an octave deeper than the female voice. Women have a longer life span in almost every population around the world.[154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162]

Males typically have larger

recreational sex to reinforce social bonds and reduce aggression.[170]

Humans of the same sex are 99.9% genetically identical. There is extremely little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that does occur is at the personal level within local areas, and not between populations.[140][171][172] Of the 0.1% of human genetic differentiation, 85% exists within any randomly chosen local population, be they Italians, Koreans, or Kurds. Two randomly chosen Koreans may be genetically as different as a Korean and an Italian. Any ethnic group contains 85% of the human genetic diversity of the world. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are about as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups.[140][173][174][175]

Current genetic research has demonstrated that humans on the

bottlenecks during human migration.[177][178] Humans have lived in Africa for the longest time, which has allowed accumulation of a higher diversity of genetic mutations in these populations. Only part of Africa's population migrated out of the continent, bringing just part of the original African genetic variety with them. African populations harbor genetic alleles that are not found in other places of the world. All the common alleles found in populations outside of Africa are found on the African continent.[140]

Geographical distribution of human variation is complex and constantly shifts through time which reflects complicated human evolutionary history. Most human biological variation is clinally distributed and blends gradually from one area to the next. Groups of people around the world have different frequencies of polymorphic genes. Furthermore, different traits are non-concordant and each have different clinal distribution. Adaptability varies both from person to person and from population to population. The most efficient adaptive responses are found in geographical populations where the environmental stimuli are the strongest (e.g. Tibetans are highly adapted to high altitudes). The clinal geographic genetic variation is further complicated by the migration and mixing between human populations which has been occurring since prehistoric times.[140][179][180][181][182][183]

Human variation is highly non-concordant: most of the genes do not cluster together and are not inherited together. Skin and hair color are not correlated to height, weight, or athletic ability. Human species do not share the same patterns of variation through geography. Skin color varies with latitude and certain people are tall or have brown hair. There is a statistical correlation between particular features in a population, but different features are not expressed or inherited together. Thus, genes which code for superficial physical traits – such as skin color, hair color, or height – represent a minuscule and insignificant portion of the human genome and do not correlate with genetic affinity. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other.

Andamanese) having similar physical features with African pygmy populations such as short stature, dark skin, and curly hair, they are not genetically closely related to these populations.[188] Genetic variants affecting superficial anatomical features (such as skin color) – from a genetic perspective, are essentially meaningless – they involve a few hundred of the billions of nucleotides in a person's DNA.[189] Individuals with the same morphology do not necessarily cluster with each other by lineage, and a given lineage does not include only individuals with the same trait complex.[140][174][190]

Due to practices of group

discrete groups of humans. Human variation is continuous, with no clear points of demarcation. There are no large clusters of relatively homogeneous people and almost every individual has genetic alleles from several ancestral groups.[140][181][182][191][192][193][194][195][196][197][198][199]

Psychology

Main article: Psychology
Further information: Human brain and Mind
Drawing of the human brain, showing several important structures

The human brain, the focal point of the

cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology
.

Generally regarded as more capable of these higher order activities, the human brain is believed to be more "intelligent" in general than that of any other known species. While some non-human species are capable of creating structures and

using simple tools
—mostly through instinct and mimicry—human technology is vastly more complex, and is constantly evolving and improving through time.

Sleep and dreaming

Main articles: Sleep and Dream

Humans are generally

REM phase of sleep
.

Consciousness and thought

Main articles: Consciousness and Cognition

Humans are one of the relatively few species to have sufficient self-awareness to recognize themselves in a mirror.[202] Already at 18 months, most human children are aware that the mirror image is not another person.[203]

Lecture at the Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, CTU, in Prague.

The human brain

sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and one's environment
. The extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world is a matter of debate, as are the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above.

The physical aspects of the mind and brain, and by extension of the nervous system, are studied in the field of neurology, the more behavioral in the field of psychology, and a sometimes loosely defined area between in the field of psychiatry, which treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system, and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, however, an understanding of brain functions is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields.

mental processes' underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas as well. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development
.

Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience.

academic discipline that investigates how humans and human societies interact with both their natural environment and the human social environment
.

Motivation and emotion

Main articles: Motivation and Emotion
Illustration of grief from Charles Darwin's book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

Motivation is the driving force of desire behind all deliberate

coercive. Religions generally posit divine or demonic
influences.

good order of things; assurance of one's place in the universe or society
.

Emotion has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behavior, though historically many

Sufi teachers felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ecstasy
.

In modern scientific thought, certain refined emotions are considered a complex neural trait innate in a variety of

domesticated and non-domesticated mammals. These were commonly developed in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. However, when humans function in civilized tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social disorder and crime
.

Sexuality and love

Main articles: Love and Human sexuality
Human parents continue caring for their offspring long after they are born.

For humans, sexuality has important social functions: it creates physical intimacy, bonds and hierarchies among individuals, besides ensuring biological

estrus through visible signs, human females do not have a distinct or visible signs of ovulation plus they experience sexual desire outside of their fertile periods. These adaptations indicate that the meaning of sexuality in humans is similar to that found in the bonobo, and that the complex human sexual behavior has a long evolutionary history.[205]

Human choices in acting on sexuality are commonly influenced by cultural norms which vary widely. Restrictions are often determined by religious beliefs or social customs. The pioneering researcher

homosexual.[206][207] Recent studies of neurology and genetics suggest people may be born predisposed to various sexual tendencies.[208]

Behavior

Main articles: Culture, Society, and Human behavior
Human society statistics
World population 8.1 billion
Population density
[citation needed] 		12.7 per km² (4.9 mi²) by total area
43.6 per km² (16.8 mi²) by land area
Largest agglomerations
[citation needed
] 		Beijing, Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Delhi, Dhaka, Guangzhou, Istanbul, Jakarta, Karachi, Kinshasa, Kolkata, Lagos, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Mexico City, Moscow, Mumbai, New York City, Osaka, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Seoul, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Tehran, Tianjin, Tokyo, Wuhan
Most widely spoken native languages[209]
Oriya
Most popular religions[210]
Baha'i
GDP (nominal)
[citation needed] 		$36,356,240 million
USD
($5,797 USD per capita
)
GDP (PPP)
[citation needed] 		$51,656,251 million IND
($8,236 per capita)
Humans often live in family-based social structures.

Humans are highly social beings and tend to live in large complex social groups. More than any other creature, humans are capable of utilizing systems of

nations. Social interactions between humans have established an extremely wide variety[clarification needed] of values, social norms, and rituals, which together form the basis of human society
.

Culture is defined here as patterns of complex symbolic behavior, i.e. all behavior that is not innate but which has to be learned through social interaction with others; such as the use of distinctive

symbolic systems
, including language, ritual, social organization, traditions, beliefs and technology.

Language

While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal. Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open – an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols. Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring, but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors.[92] Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, auditively in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and even through tactile media such as braille. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. The invention of writing systems at least five thousand years ago allowed the preservation of language on material objects, and was a major technological advancement. The science of linguistics describes the structure and function of language and the relationship between languages. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct.[211]

Gender roles

Main articles: Gender role and Gender

The sexual division of humans into male and female has been marked culturally by a corresponding division of roles, norms,

power. Cultural differences
by gender have often been believed to have arisen naturally out of a division of reproductive labor; the biological fact that women give birth led to their further cultural responsibility for nurturing and caring for children. Gender roles have varied historically, and challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies.

Kinship

Main articles: Kinship and Marriage

All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents and children (

descent groups, groups of people sharing a common line of descent, which can function as political units such as clans. Another function is the way in which kinship unites families through marriage, forming kinship alliances between groups of wife-takers and wife-givers. Such alliances also often have important political and economical ramifications, and may result in the formation of political organization above the community level. Kinship relations often includes regulations for whom an individual should or shouldn't marry. All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited – such rules vary widely between cultures.[citation needed] Some societies also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations, frequently with either cross or parallel cousins. Rules and norms for marriage and social behavior among kinsfolk is often reflected in the systems of kinship terminology in the various languages of the world. In many societies kinship relations can also be formed through forms of co-habitation, adoption, fostering, or companionship, which also tends to create relations of enduring solidarity (nurture kinship
).

Ethnicity

Main article:
Ethnic group

Humans often form ethnic groups, such groups tend to be larger than kinship networks and be organized around a common identity defined variously in terms of shared ancestry and history, shared cultural norms and language, or shared biological phenotype. Such ideologies of shared characteristics are often perpetuated in the form of powerful, compelling narratives that give legitimacy and continuity to the set of shared values. Ethnic groupings often correspond to some level of political organization such as the

social identity and in constructing solidarity between members of an ethno-political unit. This unifying property of ethnicity has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th century.[212][213][214][215][216][217]

Society, government, and politics

Main articles: Origins of society, Society, Government, Politics, and State (polity)
Headquarters in New York City
, which houses one of the largest political organizations in the world
Russian honor guard at Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.

Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. A state is an organized political community occupying a definite territory, having an organized government, and possessing internal and external sovereignty. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by Max Weber, "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the 'legitimate' use of physical force within a given territory."[218]

Government can be defined as the political means of creating and enforcing laws; typically via a bureaucratic hierarchy. Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups; this process often involves conflict as well as compromise. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within governments, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Examples of governments include monarchy, Communist state, military dictatorship, theocracy, and liberal democracy, the last of which is considered dominant today. All of these issues have a direct relationship with economics.

Trade and economics

Main articles: Trade and Economics
sellers bargaining
in a market

Trade is the voluntary exchange of goods and services, and is a form of economics. A mechanism that allows trade is called a

division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of manufacturing or service, trading their labor for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production
.

Economics is a social science which studies the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on measurable variables, and is broadly divided into two main branches: microeconomics, which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers aggregate supply and demand for money, capital and commodities. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are resource allocation, production, distribution, trade, and competition. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic value.

War

Main article: War
The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.
Soldiers in front of the wood of Hougoumont during the reenactment of the battle of Waterloo (1815), June 2011, Waterloo, Belgium.

War is a state of organized armed conflict between

ants.[citation needed
]

There have been a wide variety of

Satellites in low Earth orbit have made outer space a factor in warfare as well as it is used for detailed intelligence gathering, however no known aggressive actions have been taken from space
.

Material culture and technology

Main articles: Tool and Technology
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools.

Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago.[220] The controlled use of fire began around 1.5 million years ago. Since then, humans have made major advances, developing complex technology to create tools to aid their lives and allowing for other advancements in culture. Major leaps in technology include the discovery of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution, and the invention of automated machines in the Industrial Revolution.

jewelry
that are particular to various regions and times.

Body culture

Main articles:
Haircut

Throughout history, humans have altered their appearance by wearing clothing[221][222] and adornments, by trimming or shaving hair or by means of body modifications.

Body modification is the deliberate altering of the

human body for any non-medical reason, such as aesthetics, sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, religious reasons, to display group membership or affiliation, to create body art, shock value, or self-expression.[223] In its most broad definition it includes plastic surgery, socially acceptable decoration (e.g. common ear piercing in many societies), and religious rites of passage (e.g. circumcision in a number of cultures).[223]

Religion and spirituality

Main articles: Religion and Spirituality
Religion and spirituality are important aspects of human cultures, as is seen in The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo.
His Grace Dr Rowan Williams, Archibishop of Canterbury, visiting Abbaye du Bec in le Bec-Hellouin on the 26th & 27th of May 2005.

Religion is generally defined as a

mystical or supernatural concepts such as karma
and God.

Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure,

irreligious. This includes humans who have no religious beliefs or do not identify with any religion. Humanism is a philosophy which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to humans; it is usually non-religious. Most religions and spiritual beliefs are clearly distinct from science on both a philosophical and methodological level; the two are not generally considered mutually exclusive and a majority of humans hold a mix of both scientific and religious views. The distinction between philosophy and religion, on the other hand, is at times less clear, and the two are linked in such fields as the philosophy of religion and theology
.

Philosophy and self-reflection

Main articles:
Human self-reflection
See also: Human nature
Statue of Confucius on Chongming Island in Shanghai

Philosophy is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of reality, reasoning and values. Major fields of philosophy include logic, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Philosophy covers a very wide range of approaches, and is used to refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.

Science

Main article: Science

Another unique aspect of human culture and thought is the development of complex methods for acquiring knowledge through observation, quantification, and verification. The scientific method has been developed to acquire knowledge of the physical world and the rules, processes and principles of which it consists, and combined with mathematics it enables the prediction of complex patterns of causality and consequence. Some other animals are able to recognize differences in small quantities, [citation needed] but humans are able to understand and recognize much larger, even abstract, quantities, and to recognize and understand algorithmic patterns which enables infinite counting routines and algebra, something that is not found in any other species.

Art, music, and literature

Main articles: Art, Music, and Literature
art theory
) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. In the modern use of the word, art is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works that, from concept to creation, adhere to the "creative impulse" of human beings. Art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of recreation.

Music is a natural

ethnic musics. Literature, the body of written—and possibly oral—works, especially creative ones, includes prose, poetry and drama, both fiction and non-fiction. Literature includes such genres as epic
, legend, myth, ballad, and folklore.

See also

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