Foreign interventions by the United States
History of U.S. expansion and influence |
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The
There have been two dominant ideologies in the United States about foreign policy—interventionism, which encourages military and political intervention in foreign countries—and isolationism, which discourages these.[2]
The 19th century formed the roots of United States foreign interventionism, which at the time was largely driven by economic opportunities in the Pacific and Spanish-held Latin America along with the
After the Soviet Union
The United States Navy has been involved in anti-piracy activity in foreign territory throughout its history, from the Barbary Wars to combating modern piracy off the coast of Somalia and other regions.
Post-colonial
The 19th century saw the United States transition from an isolationist, post-colonial regional power to a Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Pacific power.
The
The founding of Liberia was privately sponsored by American groups, primarily the American Colonization Society, but the country enjoyed the support and unofficial cooperation of the United States government.[5]
Notable 19th century interventions included:
- 1811: United States federal agent Joel Roberts Poinsett arrives in Chile to assess the prospects of Chilean revolutionaries during their war against the Spanish Empire, leading the first of many U.S. interventions in Chile.
- 1846 to 1848: During the American Southwest but was then part of Mexico. During this war, U.S. Armed Forces troops invaded and occupied parts of Mexico, including Veracruz and Mexico City.
- 1854: Commodore Matthew Perry negotiated the Convention of Kanagawa, which effectively ended Japan's centuries of national isolation, opening the country to Western trade and diplomacy.[6] The U.S. later advanced the Open Door Policy in 1899 that guaranteed equal economic access to China and support of Chinese territorial and administrative integrity.[7]
- 1871: The U.S. dispatched an ambushed, the 650-man American expeditionary force launched a punitive campaign, capturing and occupying several Korean forts and killing over 200 Korean troops.[8]
- 1898: The short but decisive Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States.[9] The U.S. Navy set up coaling stations there and in Hawaii.[10] See also: Bath Iron Works
The early decades of the 20th century saw a number of interventions in Latin America by the U.S. government often justified under the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.[11] President William Howard Taft viewed Dollar diplomacy as a way for American corporations to benefit while assisting in the national security goal of preventing European powers from filling any possible financial power vacuum.[12]
- 1898 to 1935: The United States launched U.S. Marines began to specialize in long-term military occupation of these countries, primarily to safeguard customs revenues which were the cause of local civil wars.[16]
- 1901: The Big Stick policy.
- 1904: When European governments began to use force to pressure Latin American countries to repay their debts, failed states.[18]
- 1906 to 1909: The U.S. governed Cuba under Governor Charles Magoon.[19]
- 1914: During a revolution in the Dominican Republic, the U.S. Navy fired at revolutionaries who were bombarding Puerto Plata, in order to stop the action.
- 1916 to 1924: U.S. Marines occupied the Dominican Republic following 28 revolutions in 50 years.[20] The Marines ruled the nation completely except for lawless parts of the city of Santo Domingo, where warlords still held sway.[21]
- 1901: The
- 1899 to 1901: The U.S. organized the Boxer secret society and toppled the Qing dynasty's Imperial Army.
- 1899 to 1913: The Elwell Otis to the Philippines, resulting in the poorly armed and poorly trained rebels to break off into armed bands. The insurgency collapsed in March 1901 when the leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, was captured by General Frederick Funston and his Macabebe allies.[22] The concurrent Moro Rebellionresulted in the subsequent annexation of the Philippines by the United States.
- 1910 to 1919: The U.S.-Mexico border saw U.S. forces occupy Veracruz for six months in 1914. U.S. troops intervened in northern Mexico during the Pancho Villa Expedition.[23]
- 1917 to 1920: The U.S. Polar Bear Expedition's North Russia intervention.
World War II
A
During the
The United States also gave economic support to a large number of countries and movements who were opposed to the
During the war, postwar planning efforts moved from securing a "quarter hemisphere" against Nazi Germany in June 1940
Cold War
United States involvement in regime change |
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Following the Second World War, the U.S. helped form the
In 1945, the United States and Soviet Union occupied Korea to disarm the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces that occupied the Korean peninsula. The U.S. and Soviet Union split the country at the 38th parallel and each installed a government, with the Soviet Union installing a Stalinist Kim Il Sung in North Korea and the US supporting anti-communist Syngman Rhee in South Korea, who was elected president in 1948. Both leaders were authoritarian dictators. Tensions between the North and South erupted into full-scale war in 1950 when North Korean forces invaded the South. From 1950 to 1953, U.S. and United Nations forces fought communist Chinese and North Korean troops in the Korean War. The war resulted in 36,574 American deaths and 2–3 million Korean deaths. The war ended in a stalemate with the Korean peninsula devastated and every major city in ruins. North Korea was among the most heavily bombed countries in history. Fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. U.S. troops have remained in South Korea with the stated aim of deterring further conflict.[36]
Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. frequently used government agencies such as the
In the early 1950s, the CIA spearheaded
In 1952, the CIA launched
The CIA armed an indigenous insurgency in order to oppose the
Covert operations continued under President
In 1961, the CIA sponsored the assassination of Rafael Trujillo, former dictator of the Dominican Republic.[48] After a period of instability, U.S. troops intervened in the Dominican Republic during the Dominican Civil War (April 1965) to prevent a takeover by supporters of deposed left wing president Juan Bosch who were fighting supporters of General Elías Wessin y Wessin. The soldiers were also deployed to evacuate foreign citizens. The U.S. deployed 22,000 soldiers and 44 died. The OAS also deployed soldiers to the conflict through the Inter-American Peace Force. U.S. soldiers were gradually withdrawn from May onwards. The war officially ended on September 3, 1965. The first postwar elections were held on July 1, 1966. Conservative Joaquín Balaguer defeated former president Juan Bosch.[49]
At the end of the
From 1965 to 1973, U.S. troops fought at the request of
In 1975 it was revealed by the
From 1972 to 1975, the CIA armed Kurdish rebels fighting the
Months after the
This program was greatly expanded under President
In 1989, President
Post-Cold War
In 1990 and 1991, the U.S. intervened in Kuwait after a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, and led a coalition to repel invading Iraqi forces led by dictator Saddam Hussein, in what became known as the Gulf War. On February 26, 1991, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. The U.S., UK, and France responded to popular Shia and Kurdish demands for no-fly zones, and intervened by enforcing them in Iraq's south and north to protect the Shia and Kurdish populations from Saddam's regime. The no-fly zones cut off Saddam from the country's Kurdish north, effectively granting autonomy to the Kurds, and would stay active for 12 years until the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
In the 1990s, the U.S. intervened in Somalia as part of
Under President
The CIA was involved in the failed 1996 coup attempt against Saddam Hussein.[91]
In response to the 1998
During the
A 2016 study by Carnegie Mellon University professor Dov Levin found that the United States intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, with the majority of those being through covert, rather than overt, actions.[95][96] A 2021 review of the existing literature found that foreign interventions since World War II tend overwhelmingly to fail to achieve their purported objectives.[97]
War on terror
After the
Though "Operation Enduring Freedom" (OEF) usually refers to the 2001–2014 phase of the war in Afghanistan, the term is also the U.S. military's official name for the War on Terror, and has multiple subordinate operations which see American military forces deployed in regions across the world in the name of combating terrorism, often in collaboration with the host nation's central government via security cooperation and status of forces agreements:
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa (OEF-HOA): U.S. forces deployed in Ethiopia,[100] Kenya,[101] Liberia,[102] Mauritius, Rwanda,[103] Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania,[104] and Uganda.[105][106][107]
- Camp Lemonnier is the only permanent U.S. military base in Africa, established in Djibouti in 2002, and supports OEF-HOA operations.
- The Peace Corps re-established a presence in Comoros in 2015, and Kentucky National Guard personnel have trained Comoros troops.[108][109]
- The Trump administration increased drone strikes in Somalia[110] and in 2020 launched Operation Octave Quartz, which saw U.S. troops dispersed from the nation and re-positioned to other military bases in the region.[111]
-
- In 2013, the U.S. began providing transport aircraft to the French Armed Forces during the Mali War.[120]
- President Barack Obama deployed up to 300 U.S. troops to Cameroon in October 2015 to conduct intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance operations against the Boko Haram terrorist group.[121] Contingency Location Garoua, a U.S. Army outpost housing around 200 troops and contractors in Garoua, was established by 2017.[122]
- Four U.S. special operations soldiers and five Nigeriens were killed during an
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Philippines
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Caribbean and Central America (OEF-CCA)[124]
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Kyrgyzstan[125]
- Operation Enduring Freedom – Pankisi Gorge[126]
The War on Terror saw the U.S. military and
In 2003, the U.S. and a multi-national coalition invaded and occupied Iraq to depose President Saddam Hussein, whom the Bush administration accused of having links to al-Qaeda and possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) during the Iraq disarmament crisis. No stockpiles of WMDs were discovered besides about 500 degraded and abandoned chemical munitions leftover from the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, which the Iraq Survey Group deemed "not militarily significant".[129] The U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence found no substantial evidence of links between Iraq and al-Qaeda[130] and President Bush later admitted that "much of the intelligence turned out to be wrong".[131] Over 4,400 Americans and hundreds of thousands of Iraqi civilians died during the Iraq War, which officially ended on December 18, 2011.
In the late 2000s, the
By 2009, the U.S. provided large amounts of aid and counterinsurgency training to enhance stability and reduce violence in President Álvaro Uribe's war-ravaged Colombia, in what has been called "the most successful nation-building exercise by the United States in this century".[133]
The 2011 Arab Spring resulted in uprisings, revolutions, and civil wars across the Arab world, including Libya, Syria, and Yemen. In 2011, the U.S. and NATO intervened in Libya by launching an extensive bombardment campaign in support of anti-Gaddafi forces. There was also speculation in The Washington Post that President Barack Obama issued a covert action, discovering in March 2011 that Obama authorized the CIA to carry out a clandestine effort to provide arms and support to the Libyan opposition.[134] Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was ultimately overthrown and killed. American activities in Libya resulted in the 2012 Benghazi attack.
Beginning around 2012, under the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and U.S. special operations troops trained and armed nearly 10,000 Syrian rebel fighters against Syrian president Bashar al-Assad[135] at a cost of $1 billion a year until it was phased out in 2017 by the Trump administration.[136][137][138][139]
2013–2014 saw the
In response to the 2014
In March 2015, President Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to
President Donald Trump was the first U.S. president in decades to not commit the military to new foreign campaigns, instead continuing wars and interventions he inherited from his predecessors, including interventions in Iraq, Syria and Somalia.[144] The Trump administration often used economic pressure against international adversaries such as Venezuela and the Islamic Republic of Iran.[145] In 2019, tensions between the U.S. and Iran triggered a crisis in the Persian Gulf which saw the U.S. bolster its military presence in the region, the creation of the International Maritime Security Construct to combat attacks on commercial shipping, and the assassination of prominent Iranian general Qasem Soleimani.[146]
In March 2021, the Biden administration designated al-Shabaab in Mozambique as a terrorist organization and, at the request of the Mozambique government, intervened in the Cabo Delgado conflict. Army Special Forces were deployed in the country to train Mozambican marines.[147][148][149]
Lettergate
It is alleged that the United States was involved in the 2022 vote of no confidence against former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan. On 7 March 2022, Islamabad's then-ambassador to the U.S., Asad Majeed Khan met with two American officials, one of whom was Donald Lu, a United States diplomat serving as Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs. In the meeting, Lu showed displeasure over Prime Minister Khan's visit to Russia one day before Russia's invasion of Ukraine.[150] He stated that if the no-confidence vote were to be successful, "all would be forgiven", otherwise ".. it will be tough going ahead".[150][151][152][153] It was only the next day, on 8 March 2022, that the Pakistan Democratic Movement announced that they were bringing a no-confidence motion against the then Premier. A cipher was sent to Khan with the details of the conversation between the officials.
On 27 March 2022, Khan claimed that he possessed a diplomatic cable dated 7 March, in which a "threat" was issued by the US government stating their desire to see Khan's ousting from office, with the stipulation that Pakistan would be "forgiven" if the motion against him succeeded. The US was allegedly unhappy with Khan's foreign policy and his visit to Russia.[154]
In August 2023, more than a year after Khan first made his claims, The Intercept published a leaked copy of the cable, which it claimed to have received from a disgruntled member of Pakistan's military. In the cable, Pakistan's ambassador to the United States reported that U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Central and South Asia Donald Lu warned that the "isolation of the Prime Minister will become very strong from Europe and the United States" after Khan's visit to Russia, and that "if the no-confidence vote against the Prime Minister succeeds, all will be forgiven in Washington."[155]
Khan alleged that the United States was behind a "foreign conspiracy" to oust him in a regime change, and that he had written evidence attesting to this. These allegations were denied by the US government. Imran Khan also said that he has been punished on not accepting U.S. policy after withdrawal from Afghanistan. Donald Lu, US Assistant Secretary of State for Central and South Asia evaded the question regarding his meeting with Pakistan's Ambassador to the U.S.[156] Khan's party alleged that there is a close connection between regime changes after UN's Ukraine Resolution. Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Spokesperson Maria Zakharova said that the U.S. has punished disobedient Imran Khan and termed that interference a shameless act. However, the U.S. claims that there is "absolutely no truth" in the allegations.[157][158]
See also
- American imperialism
- American exceptionalism
- Territorial evolution of the United States
- United States and state terrorism
- Criticism of United States foreign policy
- List of United States drone bases
- List of the lengths of United States participation in wars
- Military history of the United States
- Historic regions of the United States
- Neoconservatism
- Manifest Destiny
- Foreign interventions by the Soviet Union
- Foreign interventions by China
- Foreign interventions by Cuba
- Foreign electoral intervention
- New Imperialism
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has generic name (help) - ^ Hussain, Ryan Grim, Murtaza (August 9, 2023). "Secret Pakistan Cable Documents U.S. Pressure to Remove Imran Khan". The Intercept. Retrieved August 10, 2023.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Correspondent, The Newspaper's (April 5, 2022). "Lu evades question about Imran's allegations". DAWN.COM. Retrieved August 10, 2023.
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References
- Gaddis, John Lewis (2005), The Cold War: A New History, Penguin Press, ISBN 978-1-59420-062-5
- Miller, Roger Gene (2000), To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949, Texas A&M University Press, ISBN 978-0-89096-967-0
- Stephen Wertheim, Tomorrow, the World: The Birth of U.S. Global Supremacy, Cambridge MA, Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press, 2020, 272 pp., ISBN 978-0674248663.
- and review at Carruthers, Dominance by Decision, not by Default: "As a history of ideas, Tomorrow the World succeeds in nailing its case that the hijacking of internationalism and hit-job on isolationism went hand-in-hand."