Foreign interventions by the United States

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The

United States government has been involved in numerous interventions in foreign countries throughout its history. The U.S. has engaged in nearly 400 military interventions between 1776 and 2023, with half of these operations occurring since 1950 and over 25% occurring in the post-Cold War period.[1] Common objectives of U.S. foreign interventions have revolved around economic opportunity, social protection, protection of U.S. citizens and diplomats, territorial expansion, fomenting regime change, nation-building, and enforcing international law.[1]

There have been two dominant ideologies in the United States about foreign policy—interventionism, which encourages military and political intervention in foreign countries—and isolationism, which discourages these.[2]

The 19th century formed the roots of United States foreign interventionism, which at the time was largely driven by economic opportunities in the Pacific and Spanish-held Latin America along with the

Western hemisphere. The 20th century saw the U.S. intervene in two world wars in which American forces fought alongside their allies in international campaigns against Imperial Japan, Imperial and Nazi Germany, and their respective allies. The aftermath of World War II resulted in a foreign policy of containment aimed at preventing the spread of world communism. The ensuing Cold War resulted in the Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Carter, and Reagan Doctrines, all of which saw the U.S. engage in espionage, regime change, proxy conflicts, and other clandestine activity internationally against Soviet
puppet regimes.

After the Soviet Union

policy to counter China's expansion in the South China Sea, a trajectory also continued by Trump and Biden
.

The United States Navy has been involved in anti-piracy activity in foreign territory throughout its history, from the Barbary Wars to combating modern piracy off the coast of Somalia and other regions.

Post-colonial

The 19th century saw the United States transition from an isolationist, post-colonial regional power to a Trans-Atlantic and Trans-Pacific power.

Marines of the Asiatic Squadron with the captured Sujagi during the 1871 Korean Expedition. The flag was not returned to Korea until 2007.[3]

The

Barbary States of North Africa, the Barbary Wars were fought to end piracy against American-flagged ships in the Mediterranean Sea, similar to the Quasi-War with the French Republic.[4]

The founding of Liberia was privately sponsored by American groups, primarily the American Colonization Society, but the country enjoyed the support and unofficial cooperation of the United States government.[5]

Notable 19th century interventions included:

Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and the Rough Riders after capturing San Juan Hill during the Spanish–American War.

The early decades of the 20th century saw a number of interventions in Latin America by the U.S. government often justified under the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.[11] President William Howard Taft viewed Dollar diplomacy as a way for American corporations to benefit while assisting in the national security goal of preventing European powers from filling any possible financial power vacuum.[12]

World War II

Second World War
.
The "Grand Area" as per the CFR planners, October 1940

A

Great Sound and Castle Harbour, Bermuda.[25]

During the

Second World War, the United States deployed troops to fight in Europe, North Africa, and the Pacific. The U.S. was a key participant in many battles, including the Battle of Midway, the Normandy landings, and the Battle of the Bulge. In the time period between December 7, 1941 to September 2, 1945, more than 400,000 Americans were killed in the conflict. After the war, American and Allied troops occupied both Germany and Japan. The U.S. maintains garrisoned military forces in both Germany and Japan
today.

The United States also gave economic support to a large number of countries and movements who were opposed to the

USSR, ostensibly to be repaid after the war. In practice, the United States frequently either did not push for repayment or "sold" the goods for a nominal price, such as 10% of their value. Significant aid was also sent to France and Taiwan, and resistance movements in countries occupied by the Axis.[26]

During the war, postwar planning efforts moved from securing a "quarter hemisphere" against Nazi Germany in June 1940

United States State Department
saw the aim of U.S. superiority as a "established fact".

Cold War

Following the Second World War, the U.S. helped form the

Operation Vittles", which supplied candy to German children.[33] In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the blockade.[34][35] The U.S. spent billions to rebuild Europe and aid global development through programs such as the Marshall Plan
.

Jacobo Árbenz attempted a modest redistribution of land, he was overthrown in the 1954 CIA Guatemalan coup d'état

In 1945, the United States and Soviet Union occupied Korea to disarm the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces that occupied the Korean peninsula. The U.S. and Soviet Union split the country at the 38th parallel and each installed a government, with the Soviet Union installing a Stalinist Kim Il Sung in North Korea and the US supporting anti-communist Syngman Rhee in South Korea, who was elected president in 1948. Both leaders were authoritarian dictators. Tensions between the North and South erupted into full-scale war in 1950 when North Korean forces invaded the South. From 1950 to 1953, U.S. and United Nations forces fought communist Chinese and North Korean troops in the Korean War. The war resulted in 36,574 American deaths and 2–3 million Korean deaths. The war ended in a stalemate with the Korean peninsula devastated and every major city in ruins. North Korea was among the most heavily bombed countries in history. Fighting ended on 27 July 1953 when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed. The agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no peace treaty was ever signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. U.S. troops have remained in South Korea with the stated aim of deterring further conflict.[36]

Throughout the Cold War, the U.S. frequently used government agencies such as the

clandestine operations against governments, groups, and individuals considered unfriendly to U.S. interests, especially in the Middle East, Latin America, and Africa. In 1949, during the Truman administration, a coup d'état overthrew an elected parliamentary government in Syria, which had delayed approving an oil pipeline requested by U.S. international business interests in that region. The exact role of the CIA in the coup is controversial, but it is clear that U.S. governmental officials, including at least one CIA officer, communicated with Husni al-Za'im, the coup's organizer, prior to the March 30 coup, and were at least aware that it was being planned. Six weeks later, on May 16, Za'im approved the pipeline.[37]

In the early 1950s, the CIA spearheaded

Mohammed Mossadegh. Supporters of U.S. policy claimed that Mossadegh had ended democracy through a rigged referendum.[39]

In 1952, the CIA launched

depose the democratically elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz and ended the Guatemalan Revolution. The coup installed the military dictatorship of Carlos Castillo Armas, the first in a series of U.S.-backed dictators who ruled Guatemala. Guatemala subsequently plunged into a civil war that cost thousands of lives and ended all democratic expression for decades.[40][41][42]

The CIA armed an indigenous insurgency in order to oppose the

Operation Blue Bat. President Eisenhower also imposed embargoes on Cuba
in 1958.

Covert operations continued under President

Castro's regime by conducting various assassination attempts on him and facilitating U.S.-sponsored terrorist attacks in Cuba. American efforts to sabotage Cuba's national security played a significant role in the events leading up to the Cuban Missile Crisis, which saw the U.S. blockade the island during a confrontation with the Soviet Union. The CIA also considered assassinating Congolese leader Patrice Lumumba with poisoned toothpaste (although this plan was aborted).[45][46][47]

In 1961, the CIA sponsored the assassination of Rafael Trujillo, former dictator of the Dominican Republic.[48] After a period of instability, U.S. troops intervened in the Dominican Republic during the Dominican Civil War (April 1965) to prevent a takeover by supporters of deposed left wing president Juan Bosch who were fighting supporters of General Elías Wessin y Wessin. The soldiers were also deployed to evacuate foreign citizens. The U.S. deployed 22,000 soldiers and 44 died. The OAS also deployed soldiers to the conflict through the Inter-American Peace Force. U.S. soldiers were gradually withdrawn from May onwards. The war officially ended on September 3, 1965. The first postwar elections were held on July 1, 1966. Conservative Joaquín Balaguer defeated former president Juan Bosch.[49]

President John F. Kennedy meeting with Cheddi Jagan in October 1961. The trip was a political disaster for Jagan, who failed to sooth the suspicions of Kennedy and Congress by equivocating on Cold War issues.[50]

At the end of the

fraudulent election of 1968—the first election after decolonization in 1966.[58] To guarantee Burnham's victory, Johnson also approved a well-timed Food for Peace loan, announced some weeks before the election so as to influence the election but not to appear to be doing so.[58] U.S.–Guyanese relations cooled in the Nixon administration. Henry Kissinger, in his memoirs, dismissed Guyana as being "invariably on the side of radicals in Third World forums."[59]

From 1965 to 1973, U.S. troops fought at the request of

limited incursion.[66][67][68] The U.S. bombing of Cambodia, called Operation Menu, proved controversial. Although David Chandler argued that the bombing "had the effect the Americans wanted--it broke the communist encirclement of Phnom Penh,"[69] others have claimed it boosted recruitment for the Khmer Rouge.[70] North Vietnam violated the Paris Peace Accords
after the US withdrew, and all of Indochina had fallen to communist governments by late 1975.

Chilean General Augusto Pinochet with George H. W. Bush

In 1975 it was revealed by the

Chilean Armed Forces generals to act against him.[citation needed] The CIA changed its approach after the murder of Chilean general René Schneider,[72] offering aid to democratic protesters and other Chilean dissidents.[citation needed] Allende was accused of supporting armed groups, torturing detainees, conducting illegal arrests, and muzzling the press.[73] However, Peter Kornbluh asserts that the CIA destabilized Chile and helped create the conditions for the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, which led to years of dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet.[74]

From 1972 to 1975, the CIA armed Kurdish rebels fighting the

internationally illegitimate. The dispute resulted in Libyan-U.S. confrontations, including an incident in 1981 in which two U.S. F-14 Tomcats shot down two Libyan Su-22 Fitters over the gulf. In response to purported Libyan involvement in international terrorism, specifically the 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, the Reagan administration launched Operation Attain Document[75] in early 1986, which saw operations in March 1986 that killed 72 Libyans and destroyed multiple boats and SAM sites. In April 1986, the U.S. bombed Libya again, killing over 40 Libyan soldiers and up to 30 civilians. The U.S. shot down two Libyan Air Force MiG-23 fighters 40 miles (64 km) north of Tobruk in 1989.[76][77]

82nd Airborne soldiers during Operation Urgent Fury, the American invasion of Grenada in October 1983.

Months after the

detente, President Jimmy Carter began covertly arming Afghan mujahideen in a program called Operation Cyclone.[citation needed
]

This program was greatly expanded under President

Operation Urgent Fury
and held free elections.

In 1989, President

Sandinistas. He surrendered to US soldiers on January 3, 1990, and was sentenced by a US court to 45 years in prison.[87]

Post-Cold War

Destroyed vehicles along the Highway of Death in 1991, a legacy of the Gulf War.

In 1990 and 1991, the U.S. intervened in Kuwait after a series of failed diplomatic negotiations, and led a coalition to repel invading Iraqi forces led by dictator Saddam Hussein, in what became known as the Gulf War. On February 26, 1991, the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. The U.S., UK, and France responded to popular Shia and Kurdish demands for no-fly zones, and intervened by enforcing them in Iraq's south and north to protect the Shia and Kurdish populations from Saddam's regime. The no-fly zones cut off Saddam from the country's Kurdish north, effectively granting autonomy to the Kurds, and would stay active for 12 years until the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

In the 1990s, the U.S. intervened in Somalia as part of

two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors
, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in a brief but bitter street firefight; 18 Americans and more than 300 Somalis were killed.

Under President

Army of Republika Srpska as part Operation Deliberate Force, an air campaign aimed at halting attacks on UN safe zones and civilians. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement
.

The CIA was involved in the failed 1996 coup attempt against Saddam Hussein.[91]

In response to the 1998

preemptive strike against a violent non-state actor conducted by the U.S. military.[92]

During the

Operation Allied Force
.

A 2016 study by Carnegie Mellon University professor Dov Levin found that the United States intervened in 81 foreign elections between 1946 and 2000, with the majority of those being through covert, rather than overt, actions.[95][96] A 2021 review of the existing literature found that foreign interventions since World War II tend overwhelmingly to fail to achieve their purported objectives.[97]

War on terror

U.S. Navy SEALs in the Afghan mountains during the War in Afghanistan
, January 2002

After the

American-led withdrawal from the country. Over 2,400 Americans, 18 CIA operatives, and over 1,800 civilian contractors, died in the Afghan War. The war in Afghanistan became the longest war in United States history, lasting 19 years and ten months–surpassing the length of the Vietnam War, which lasted 19 years and five months–and cost the U.S. over $2 trillion.[99]

Though "Operation Enduring Freedom" (OEF) usually refers to the 2001–2014 phase of the war in Afghanistan, the term is also the U.S. military's official name for the War on Terror, and has multiple subordinate operations which see American military forces deployed in regions across the world in the name of combating terrorism, often in collaboration with the host nation's central government via security cooperation and status of forces agreements:

The War on Terror saw the U.S. military and

Yemen, and Somalia against suspected terrorist groups and their leadership.[127][128]

82nd Airborne at the Victory Arch in Baghdad, Iraq, 2009. U.S. forces established the Green Zone in Baghdad during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

In 2003, the U.S. and a multi-national coalition invaded and occupied Iraq to depose President Saddam Hussein, whom the Bush administration accused of having links to al-Qaeda and possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) during the Iraq disarmament crisis. No stockpiles of WMDs were discovered besides about 500 degraded and abandoned chemical munitions leftover from the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s, which the Iraq Survey Group deemed "not militarily significant".[129] The U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence found no substantial evidence of links between Iraq and al-Qaeda[130] and President Bush later admitted that "much of the intelligence turned out to be wrong".[131] Over 4,400 Americans and hundreds of thousands of Iraqi civilians died during the Iraq War, which officially ended on December 18, 2011.

In the late 2000s, the

illegal fishing.[132]

By 2009, the U.S. provided large amounts of aid and counterinsurgency training to enhance stability and reduce violence in President Álvaro Uribe's war-ravaged Colombia, in what has been called "the most successful nation-building exercise by the United States in this century".[133]

The 2011 Arab Spring resulted in uprisings, revolutions, and civil wars across the Arab world, including Libya, Syria, and Yemen. In 2011, the U.S. and NATO intervened in Libya by launching an extensive bombardment campaign in support of anti-Gaddafi forces. There was also speculation in The Washington Post that President Barack Obama issued a covert action, discovering in March 2011 that Obama authorized the CIA to carry out a clandestine effort to provide arms and support to the Libyan opposition.[134] Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was ultimately overthrown and killed. American activities in Libya resulted in the 2012 Benghazi attack.

Beginning around 2012, under the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and U.S. special operations troops trained and armed nearly 10,000 Syrian rebel fighters against Syrian president Bashar al-Assad[135] at a cost of $1 billion a year until it was phased out in 2017 by the Trump administration.[136][137][138][139]

American intervention in the Syrian civil war
.

2013–2014 saw the

re-intervened
in Libya in 2015 as part of Inherent Resolve.

In response to the 2014

collective defense effort to enhance NATO's military planning and defense capabilities by maintaining a persistent rotation of American air, ground and naval presence in the region to deter perceived Russian aggression along NATO's eastern flank.[141][142] The Enhanced Forward Presence
(EFP) force was established by NATO.

In March 2015, President Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to

Joint Planning Cell" with them.[143] American and British forces participated in the blockade of Yemen
.

President Donald Trump was the first U.S. president in decades to not commit the military to new foreign campaigns, instead continuing wars and interventions he inherited from his predecessors, including interventions in Iraq, Syria and Somalia.[144] The Trump administration often used economic pressure against international adversaries such as Venezuela and the Islamic Republic of Iran.[145] In 2019, tensions between the U.S. and Iran triggered a crisis in the Persian Gulf which saw the U.S. bolster its military presence in the region, the creation of the International Maritime Security Construct to combat attacks on commercial shipping, and the assassination of prominent Iranian general Qasem Soleimani.[146]

In March 2021, the Biden administration designated al-Shabaab in Mozambique as a terrorist organization and, at the request of the Mozambique government, intervened in the Cabo Delgado conflict. Army Special Forces were deployed in the country to train Mozambican marines.[147][148][149]

Lettergate

It is alleged that the United States was involved in the 2022 vote of no confidence against former Pakistani Prime Minister Imran Khan. On 7 March 2022, Islamabad's then-ambassador to the U.S., Asad Majeed Khan met with two American officials, one of whom was Donald Lu, a United States diplomat serving as Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs. In the meeting, Lu showed displeasure over Prime Minister Khan's visit to Russia one day before Russia's invasion of Ukraine.[150] He stated that if the no-confidence vote were to be successful, "all would be forgiven", otherwise ".. it will be tough going ahead".[150][151][152][153] It was only the next day, on 8 March 2022, that the Pakistan Democratic Movement announced that they were bringing a no-confidence motion against the then Premier. A cipher was sent to Khan with the details of the conversation between the officials.

On 27 March 2022, Khan claimed that he possessed a diplomatic cable dated 7 March, in which a "threat" was issued by the US government stating their desire to see Khan's ousting from office, with the stipulation that Pakistan would be "forgiven" if the motion against him succeeded. The US was allegedly unhappy with Khan's foreign policy and his visit to Russia.[154]

In August 2023, more than a year after Khan first made his claims, The Intercept published a leaked copy of the cable, which it claimed to have received from a disgruntled member of Pakistan's military. In the cable, Pakistan's ambassador to the United States reported that U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Central and South Asia Donald Lu warned that the "isolation of the Prime Minister will become very strong from Europe and the United States" after Khan's visit to Russia, and that "if the no-confidence vote against the Prime Minister succeeds, all will be forgiven in Washington."[155]

Khan alleged that the United States was behind a "foreign conspiracy" to oust him in a regime change, and that he had written evidence attesting to this. These allegations were denied by the US government. Imran Khan also said that he has been punished on not accepting U.S. policy after withdrawal from Afghanistan. Donald Lu, US Assistant Secretary of State for Central and South Asia evaded the question regarding his meeting with Pakistan's Ambassador to the U.S.[156] Khan's party alleged that there is a close connection between regime changes after UN's Ukraine Resolution. Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Spokesperson Maria Zakharova said that the U.S. has punished disobedient Imran Khan and termed that interference a shameless act. However, the U.S. claims that there is "absolutely no truth" in the allegations.[157][158]

See also

Notes

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References