History of Jamaica
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History of Jamaica |
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Pre-Columbian Jamaica |
Taíno people |
Spanish Jamaica |
Spanish settlement |
English Jamaica |
Rastafari movement |
Independent Jamaica |
Independence of Jamaica Jamaican political conflict |
Jamaica portal |
The Caribbean Island of
The Spanish also captured and transported hundreds of West African people to the island for the purpose of slavery. However, the majority of Africans were brought into Jamaica by the English.
In 1655, the English invaded Jamaica, and defeated the Spanish. Some African enslaved people took advantage of the political turmoil and escaped to the island's interior mountains, forming independent communities which became known as the Maroons.[9] Meanwhile, on the coast, the English built the settlement of Port Royal, a base of operations where piracy flourished as so many European rebels had been rejected from their countries to serve sentences on the seas. Captain Henry Morgan, a Welsh plantation owner and privateer, raided settlements and shipping bases from Port Royal, earning him his reputation as one of the richest pirates in the Caribbean.
In the 18th century,
The aftermath of the
Jamaica's first political parties emerged in the late 1920s, while workers association and trade unions emerged in the 1930s. The development of a new
Pre-Columbian Jamaica
The first inhabitants of Jamaica probably came from islands to the east in two waves of migration. About 600 CE the culture known as the “Redware people” arrived. Little is known of these people, however, beyond the red pottery they left behind.
Around 800 CE, the
The Arawak brought a South America system of raising
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Cassava (yuca) roots, the Taínos' main crop
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Dujo, a wooden chair crafted by Taínos.
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Reconstruction of a Taíno village in Cuba
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Caguana Ceremonial Ball Courts Site (batey), outlined with stones in Utuado, Puerto Rico
The Spanish period (1494–1655)
The Spanish crown granted the island to the Columbus family, but for decades it was something of a backwater, valued chiefly as a supply base for food and animal hides. In 1509 Juan de Esquivel founded the first permanent European settlement, the town of Sevilla la Nueva (New Seville), on the north coast of the island. A decade later, Friar Bartolomé de las Casas wrote to Spanish authorities about Esquivel's conduct during the Higüey massacre of 1503.[citation needed]
In 1534 the capital was moved to
The Spanish enslaved many of the Arawak.[12] Some escaped to the mountains to join the Maroons.[7][8] However, most died from European diseases as well as from being overworked.[14] The Spaniards also introduced the first African slaves into the island. By the early 17th century, when most of the Taino had died out, the population of the island was about 3,000, including a small number of African slaves.[15] Disappointed in the lack of gold on the island, Jamaica was mainly used as a military base to supply colonization efforts in the mainland Americas.[16]
The Spanish colonists did not bring women in the first expeditions and took Taíno women for their common-law wives, resulting in mestizo children.[17]
Although the Taino referred to the island as "Xaymaca", the Spanish gradually changed the name to "Jamaica".[18] In the so-called Admiral's map of 1507 the island was labeled as "Jamaiqua" and in Peter Martyr's work Decades of 1511, he referred to it as both "Jamaica" and "Jamica".[18]
British rule (1655–1962)
17th century
English conquest
In late 1654, English leader Oliver Cromwell launched the Western Design armada against Spain's colonies in the Caribbean. In April 1655, General Robert Venables led the armada in an attack on Spain's fort at Santo Domingo, Hispaniola. After the Spanish repelled this poorly executed attack, the English force then sailed for Jamaica, the only Spanish West Indies island that did not have new defensive works. In May 1655, around 7,000 English soldiers landed near Jamaica's capital, named Spanish Town and soon overwhelmed the small number of Spanish troops (at the time, Jamaica's entire population only numbered around 2,500).[19]
Spain never recaptured Jamaica, losing the
British colonization
Cromwell increased the island's European population by sending indentured servants and prisoners to Jamaica. Due to Irish emigration resulting from the wars in Ireland at this time two-thirds of this 17th-century European population was Irish. But
Maroons
When the English captured Jamaica in 1655, the Spanish colonists fled, leaving a large number of African slaves. These former Spanish slaves organised under the leadership of rival captains Juan de Serras and Juan de Bolas. These Jamaican Maroons intermarried with the Arawak people, and established distinct independent communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica. They survived by subsistence farming and periodic raids of plantations. Over time, the Maroons came to control large areas of the Jamaican interior.[23]
In the second half of the seventeenth century, de Serras fought regular campaigns against English colonial forces, even attacking the capital of Spanish Town, and he was never defeated by the English. Throughout the seventeenth century, and in the first few decades of the eighteenth century, Maroon forces frequently defeated the British in small-scale skirmishes. The British colonial authorities dispatched numerous expeditions in an attempt to subdue them, but the Maroons successfully fought a guerrilla campaign against the British in the mountainous interior, and forced the British government to seek peace terms to end the expensive conflict.[24]
In the early eighteenth century, English-speaking escaped Akan slaves were at the forefront of the Maroon fighting against the British.
The House of Assembly
Beginning with the
Jamaica's pirates
Following the 1655 conquest, Spain repeatedly attempted to recapture Jamaica. In response, in 1657, Governor
England gained formal possession of Jamaica from Spain in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid. Removing the pressing need for constant defense against a Spanish attack, this change served as an incentive to planting. This settlement also improved the supply of slaves and resulted in more protection, including military support, for the planters against foreign competition. As a result, the sugar monoculture and slave-worked plantation society spread across Jamaica throughout the 18th century, decreasing Jamaica's dependence on privateers for protection and funds.
However, the English colonial authorities continued to have difficulties suppressing the Spanish Maroons, who made their homes in the mountainous interior and mounted periodic raids on estates and towns, such as Spanish Town. The Karmahaly Maroons, led by Juan de Serras, continued to stay in the forested mountains, and periodically fought the English. In the 1670s and 1680s, in his capacity as an owner of a large slave plantation, Morgan led three campaigns against the Jamaican Maroons of Juan de Serras. Morgan achieved some success against the Maroons, who withdrew further into the Blue Mountains, where they were able to stay out of the reach of Morgan and his forces.[26]
Another blow to Jamaica's partnership with privateers was the violent
18th century
Jamaica's sugar boom
In the mid-17th century, sugarcane was introduced to the British West Indies by the Dutch,[29][30][31] from Brazil. Upon landing in Jamaica and other islands, they quickly urged local growers to change their main crops from cotton and tobacco to sugarcane. With depressed prices of cotton and tobacco, due mainly to stiff competition from the North American colonies, the farmers switched, leading to a boom in the Caribbean economies. Sugarcane was quickly snapped up by the British, who used it in cakes and to sweeten tea. In the 18th century, sugar replaced piracy as Jamaica's main source of income. The sugar industry was labor-intensive and the British brought hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans to Jamaica. By 1832, the median-size plantation in Jamaica had about 150 slaves, and nearly one of every four bondsmen lived on units that had at least 250 slaves.[32] In The Book of Night Women, author Marlon James indicates that the ratio of slave owners to enslaved Africans is 1:33.[citation needed] James also depicts atrocities that slave owners subjected slaves to along with violent resistance from the slaves as well as numerous slaves who died in pursuit of freedom. After slavery was abolished in 1834, sugarcane plantations used a variety of forms of labour including workers imported from India under contracts of indenture.
The 18th century saw thousands of slaves imported into Jamaica into the now profitable sugar plantations. From 1740 to 1834, the estimated slave population continued to grow, reaching into the three hundred thousands by the end of the century.[33] The sugar boom of Jamaica would change the dynamics of the slave market and the economics of the West Indies. Towards the end of the 18th century, Jamaica became the leader of sugar production for the British empire, producing up to 66% of the empire's sugar in 1796.[33] The price of sugar would rise tremendously as the market for sugar in Great Britain was large, especially with the rich. From 1748 to 1755, the value of sugar exportations from Jamaica increased by nearly three times, going from £688,000 to £1,618,000 over the period.[33] With the high demand for sugar out of Jamaica, the demand for slaves increased, leading to an increase in prices for slaves. From 1750 to 1807, the average price for a slave in the Caribbean would continue to steadily rise, reaching a high of £73 in 1805.[33] Prices soared towards the dawn of the new century as a result of the plantation system in Saint-Domingue falling due to the Haitian revolution, putting more emphasis on Jamaica. Interestingly, the most efficient plantations employed fewer slaves per acre of land, which was observed in St. Andrews parish.[34] This created a higher demand for slaves that were efficient and in good health and shape, inflating the prices of those individuals and creating a quality over quantity dynamic. Internal markets would also develop, namely in Kingston, that allowed for plantations to reallocate labor and to disuade or break-up bonds and families made by slaves.[35]
With an increase in traffic of ships, sugar, and slaves, British merchants implemented the guarantee system, in which a merchant would be appointed to guarantee payment upon the delivery of the enslaved.[36] This system served as a safety net for merchants as they had no influence over the price of the enslaved sold as age, weight, and vitality effected price range. With a safe system of commerce and the rising prices of sugar, the opportunity to make riches presented itself and attracted thousands of merchants and sailors looking to gain riches. Most of the slaves and their sales would be run through middlemen known as "Guinea Factors" who served as "the indispensable nexus between the transatlantic slave trade and the plantation complex," according to Radburn.[37] These factors were instrumental in keeping the slave trade and economy running smoothly, as everything went in and out through them. Records of some of the factors and how many slaves they sold show just how much their work perpetuated the slave economy. From 1785 to 1796, five factors sold 78,258 slaves combined, with a Alexandre Lindo accounting for 25,706 of them a 17% share of the entire Jamaican slave trade.[37] Such a large amount of slaves sold by one man in a little over ten years shows just how popular and profitable the slave market had become.
First Maroon War
Starting in the late seventeenth century, there were periodic skirmishes between the English colonial militia and the Windward Maroons, alongside occasional slave revolts. In 1673 one such revolt in St. Ann's Parish of 200 slaves created the separate group of Leeward Maroons. These Maroons united with a group of
Early in the 18th century, the Maroons took a heavy toll on British colonial militiamen who sent against them in the interior, in what came to be known as the First Maroon War. In 1728, the British authorities sent Robert Hunter to assume the office of governor of Jamaica; Hunter's arrival led to an intensification of the conflict. However, despite increased numbers, the British colonial authorities were unable to defeat the Windward Maroons.[39]
In 1739–40, the British government in Jamaica recognised that it could not defeat the Maroons, so they offered them treaties of peace instead. In 1739, the British, led by Governor
The First Maroon War came to an end with a 1739–1740 agreement between the Maroons and the British government. In exchange, they were asked to agree not to harbour new runaway slaves, but rather to help catch them. This last clause in the treaty naturally caused a split between the Maroons and the mainly mulatto population, although from time to time runaways from the plantations still found their way into maroon settlements, such as those led by Three Fingered Jack (Jamaica). Another provision of the agreement was that the Maroons would serve to protect the island from invaders. The latter was because the Maroons were revered by the British as skilled warriors.
A year later, the even more rebellious Windward Maroons led by
The Maroons were to remain in their five main towns (
Tacky's revolt
In May 1760, Tacky, a slave overseer on the
By dawn, hundreds of other slaves had joined Tacky and his followers. At Ballard's Valley, the rebels stopped to rejoice in their success. One slave from Esher decided to slip away and sound the alarm.[41] Obeahmen (Caribbean witch doctors) quickly circulated around the camp dispensing a powder that they claimed would protect the men from injury in battle and loudly proclaimed that an Obeahman could not be killed. The confidence was high.[41] Soon there were 70 to 80 mounted militia on their way along with some Maroons from Scott's Hall, who were bound by treaty to suppress such rebellions. When the militia learned of the Obeahman's boast of not being able to be killed, an Obeahman was captured, killed, and hung with his mask, ornaments of teeth and bone and feather trimmings at a prominent place visible from the encampment of rebels. Many of the rebels, confidence shaken, returned to their plantations. Tacky and 25 or so men decided to fight on.[41] Tacky and his men went running through the woods being chased by the Maroons and their legendary marksman, Davy the Maroon.
While running at full speed, Davy shot Tacky and cut off his head as evidence of his feat, for which he would be richly rewarded. Tacky's head was later displayed on a pole in Spanish Town until a follower took it down in the middle of the night. The rest of Tacky's men were found in a cave near Tacky Falls, having committed suicide rather than going back to slavery.[41]
Second Maroon War
In 1795, the Second Maroon War was instigated when two Maroons were flogged by a black slave for allegedly stealing two pigs. When six Maroon leaders came to the British to present their grievances, the British took them as prisoners. This sparked an eight-month conflict, spurred by the fact that Maroons felt that they were being mistreated under the terms of Cudjoe's Treaty of 1739, which ended the First Maroon War. The war lasted for five months as a bloody stalemate. The British colonial authorities could muster 5,000 men, outnumbering the Maroons ten to one, but the mountainous and forested topography of Jamaica proved ideal for guerrilla warfare. The Maroons surrendered in December 1795. A treaty signed in December between Major General George Walpole and the Maroon leaders established that the Maroons would beg on their knees for the King's forgiveness, return all runaway slaves, and be relocated elsewhere in Jamaica. The governor of Jamaica ratified the treaty but gave the Maroons only three days to present themselves to beg forgiveness on 1 January 1796. Suspicious of British intentions, most of the Maroons did not surrender until mid-March. The British used the contrived breach of the treaty as a pretext to deport the entire Trelawny Town Maroons to Nova Scotia. After a few years, the Maroons were again deported to the new British settlement of Sierra Leone in West Africa.
19th century
Slave resistance
Hundreds of runaway slaves secured their freedom by escaping and fighting alongside the Maroons of Trelawny Town. About half of these runaways surrendered with the Maroons, and many were executed or re-sold in slavery to Cuba. However, a few hundred stayed out in the forests of the Cockpit Country, and they joined other runaway communities. In 1798, a slave named Cuffee ran away from a western estate, and established a runaway community which was able to resist attempts by the colonial forces and the Maroons remaining in Jamaica to subdue them.[42] In the early nineteenth century, colonial records describe hundreds of runaway slaves escaping to "Healthshire" where they flourished for several years before they were captured by a party of Maroons.[43]
In 1812, a community of runaways started when a dozen men and some women escaped from the sugar plantations of Trelawny into the Cockpit Country, and they created a village with the curious name of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come. By the 1820s, Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come housed between 50 and 60 runaways. The headmen of the community were escaped slaves named Warren and Forbes. Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come also conducted a thriving trade with slaves from the north coast, who exchanged their salt provisions with the runaways for their ground provisions.[44] In October 1824, the colonial militias tried to destroy this community. However, the community of Me-no-Sen-You-no-Come continued to thrive in the Cockpit Country until Emancipation in the 1830s.[45]
The Baptist War
In 1831, enslaved
Emancipation
The British Parliament held two inquires as a result of the loss of property and life in the 1831 Baptist War rebellion.[citation needed] Their reports of the conditions of the slaves contributed greatly to the abolition movement and helped lead to the passage of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, formally ending slavery in Jamaica on August 1, 1834. However, the act stipulated that all slaves above the age of 6 on the date abolition took effect, were bound (indentured) in service to their former owners', albeit with a guarantee of rights, under what was called the "Apprenticeship System". The length of servitude that was required varied based on the former slaves’ responsibilities with "domestic slaves" owing four years of service and "agriculture slaves" owing six. In addition to the apprentice system, former slave owners were to be compensated for the loss of their "property." By 1839, "Twenty Million Pounds Sterling" was paid out to the owners of slaves freed in the Caribbean and Africa under the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, half of whom were absentee landlords residing in Great Britain.
The apprentice system was unpopular amongst Jamaica's "former" slaves — especially elderly slaves — who unlike slave owners were not provided any compensation. This led to protests. In the face of mounting pressure, a resolution was passed on August 1, 1838, releasing all "apprentices" regardless of position from all obligations to their former masters.
With the
Rumblings of emancipation movements had begun as early as the 1780s which scared many planters. With the fear of being unable to purchase a sufficient labor force through the slave trade, the value of women increased. From 1788 to 1807, some planters began to buy women at a higher rate, trying to balance the gender ratio to 50-50.[52] The reason for buying women in higher amounts was so that they could give birth to more slaves. This served two purposes, one was to supply their labor force even in the eventual passing of emancipation, and secondly to cut down on future spending by instead having your slave be born instead of purchased. Minimizing spending became a large priority following emancipation and the decline of the sugar based economy of Jamaica, making running a plantation very expensive. Merchants still found a way to stay wealthy in the wake of emancipation through the importation of British goods into Spanish America, enabling communities such as Kingston that were built on the economy of the slave trade to see continued economic prosperity.[53]
The Morant Bay Rebellion
Tensions between blacks and whites resulted in the October 1865 Morant Bay rebellion led by Paul Bogle. The rebellion was sparked on 7 October, when a black man was put on trial and imprisoned for allegedly trespassing on a long-abandoned plantation. During the proceedings, James Geoghegon, a black spectator, disrupted the trial, and in the police's attempts to seize him to remove him from the courthouse, a fight broke out between the police and other spectators. While pursuing Geoghegon, two policemen were beaten with sticks and stones.[54] The following Monday, arrest warrants were issued for several men for rioting, resisting arrest, and assaulting the police. Among them was Baptist preacher Paul Bogle. A few days later on 11 October, Mr. Paul Bogle marched with a group of protesters to Morant Bay. When the group arrived at the courthouse they were met by a small and inexperienced volunteer militia. The crowd began pelting the militia with rocks and sticks, and the militia opened fire on the group, killing seven black protesters before retreating.
Governor John Eyre sent government troops, under Brigadier-General Alexander Nelson,[55] to hunt down the poorly armed rebels and bring Paul Bogle back to Morant Bay for trial. The troops met with no organized resistance, yet they killed blacks indiscriminately, most of whom had not been involved in the riot or rebellion. According to one soldier, "We slaughtered all before us... man or woman or child.”[citation needed] In the end, 439 black Jamaicans were killed directly by soldiers, and 354 more (including Paul Bogle) were arrested and later executed, some without proper trials. Paul Bogle was executed "either the same evening he was tried or the next morning."[56] Other punishments included the flogging of over 600 men and women (including some pregnant women), and long prison sentences. Thousands of homes belonging to black Jamaicans were burned down without any justifiable reason.
George William Gordon, Jamaican-born plantation owner, businessman and politician, who was the mixed-race son of Scottish-born plantation owner of Cherry Gardens in St. Andrew, Joseph Gordon, and his black enslaved mistress. Gordon, had been critical of Governor John Eyre and his policies, and was later arrested by the Governor who believed he had been behind the rebellion. Despite having very little to do with the rebellion, Gordon was eventually executed. Though he was arrested in Kingston, he was transferred by Eyre to Morant Bay, where he could be tried under martial law. The execution and trial of Gordon via martial law raised some constitutional issues back in Britain, where concerns emerged about whether British dependencies should be ruled under the government of law, or through a military license.[57] Gordon hanged on 23 October, after a speedy trial — just two days after his trial had begun. He and William Bogle, Paul's brother, "were both tried together, and executed at the same time.”[citation needed]
Decline of the sugar industry
During most of the 18th century, the
The second half of the 19th century was a period of severe economic decline for Jamaica. Low crop prices, droughts, and disease led to serious social unrest, culminating in the Morant Bay rebellions of 1865. However, renewed British administration after the 1865 rebellion, in the form of crown colony status, resulted in some social and economic progress as well as investment in the physical infrastructure. Agricultural development was the centrepiece of restored British rule in Jamaica. In 1868 the first large-scale irrigation project was launched. In 1895 the Jamaica Agricultural Society was founded to promote more scientific and profitable methods of farming. Also in the 1890s, the Crown Lands Settlement Scheme was introduced, a land reform program of sorts, which allowed small farmers to purchase two hectares or more of land on favorable terms.
Between 1865 and 1930, the character of landholding in Jamaica changed substantially, as sugar declined in importance. As many former plantations went bankrupt, some land was sold to Jamaican peasants under the Crown Lands Settlement whereas other cane fields were consolidated by dominant British producers, most notably by the British firm
The rise of the banana trade during the second half of the 19th century also changed production and trade patterns on the island. Bananas were first exported in 1867, and banana farming grew rapidly thereafter. By 1890, bananas had replaced sugar as Jamaica's principal export. Production rose from 5 million stems (32 percent of exports) in 1897 to an average of 20 million stems a year in the 1920s and 1930s, or over half of domestic exports. As with sugar, the presence of American companies, like the well-known United Fruit Company in Jamaica, was a driving force behind renewed agricultural exports. Competition was introduced by the Jamaican-Italian firm Lanasa & Goffe raising the price paid for bananas in 1906. The British also became more interested in Jamaican bananas than in the country's sugar. Expansion of banana production, however, was hampered by serious labour shortages. The rise of the banana economy took place amidst a general exodus of up to 11,000 Jamaicans a year.
Coffee plantations also suffered as a result of emancipation. Even with paid labor becoming a fixture on these coffee plantations, the newfound wages that ex-slaves were paid and lower profits made it difficult to effectively run the plantation financially. One planter found that running his plantation cost about £2400 per year, which was about double of what it had cost in the years before 1839.[58] Some planters attempted to tie the now free laborers to the land by making them have to pay rent if they worked and lived on the plantation. Many laborers of course rejected these arrangements, as with a declining plantation economy they sought to separate themselves from the plantation.[58] Following these trends, the market for many of these workers declined on the plantation and shifted to the more urban centers such as Kingston, leaving the plantation economy of Jamaica behind.
Jamaica as a Crown Colony
In 1846 Jamaican planters — adversely affected by the loss of slave labour — suffered a crushing blow when Britain passed the
Religion
Until it was disestablished in 1870, the Church of England in Jamaica was the established church. It represented the white English community. It received funding from the colonial government and was given responsibility for providing religious instruction to the slaves. It was challenged by Methodist missionaries from England, and the Methodists in turn were denounced as troublemakers. The Church of England in Jamaica established the Jamaica Home and Foreign Missionary Society in 1861; its mission stations multiplied, with financial help from religious organizations in London. The Society sent its own missionaries to West Africa. Baptist missions grew rapidly, thanks to missionaries from England and the United States, and became the largest denomination by 1900. Baptist missionaries denounced the apprentice system as a form of slavery. In the 1870s and 1880s, the Methodists opened a high school and a theological college. Other Protestant groups included the Moravians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Seventh-day Adventist, Church of God, and others. There were several thousand Roman Catholics.[59] The population was largely Christian by 1900, and most families were linked with the church or a Sunday School. Traditional pagan practices persisted in an unorganized fashion, such as witchcraft.[60]
Kingston, the new capital
In 1872, the government passed an act to transfer government offices from Spanish Town to Kingston. Kingston had been founded as a refuge for survivors of the
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Kingston in 1891
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Horse-drawn carriages in Kingston, 1891
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Map of Kingston in 1897
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View of Kingston in 1907 showing damage caused by the earthquake.
Early 20th century
Bananas
Marcus Garvey
Rastafari movement
The
The Great Depression and worker protests
The Great Depression caused sugar prices to slump in 1929 and led to the return of many Jamaicans. Economic stagnation, discontent with unemployment, low wages, high prices, and poor living conditions caused social unrest in the 1930s. Uprisings in Jamaica began on the Frome Sugar Estate in the western parish of Westmoreland and quickly spread east to Kingston. Jamaica, in particular, set the pace for the region in its demands for economic development from British colonial rule.
Because of disturbances in Jamaica and the rest of the region, the British in 1938 appointed the Moyne Commission. An immediate result of the commission was the Colonial Development Welfare Act, which provided for the expenditure of approximately Ł1 million a year for twenty years on coordinated development in the British West Indies. Concrete actions, however, were not implemented to deal with Jamaica's massive structural problems.
New unions and parties
The rise of
A first cousin of Bustamante,
The PNP adopted a
Bustamante had political ambitions of his own, however. In 1942, while still incarcerated, he founded a political party to rival the PNP, called the Jamaica Labour Party (JLP). The new party, whose leaders were of a lower class than those of the PNP, was supported by conservative businessmen and 60,000 dues-paying BITU members, who encompassed dock and sugar plantation workers and other unskilled urban laborers. On his release in 1943, Bustamante began building up the JLP. Meanwhile, several PNP leaders organized the leftist-oriented Trade Union Congress (TUC). Thus, from an early stage in modern Jamaica, unionized labor was an integral part of organized political life.
For the next quarter-century, Bustamante and Manley competed for center stage in Jamaican political affairs, the former espousing the cause of the "barefoot man"; the latter, "democratic socialism," a loosely defined political and economic theory aimed at achieving a classless system of government. Jamaica's two founding fathers projected quite different popular images. Bustamante, lacking even a high school diploma, was an autocratic, charismatic, and highly adept politician; Manley was an athletic, Oxford-trained lawyer, Rhodes scholar, humanist, and liberal intellectual. Although considerably more reserved than Bustamante, Manley was well-liked and widely respected. He was also a visionary nationalist who became the driving force behind the crown colony's quest for independence.
Following the 1938 disturbances in the
Under the new charter, the British governor, assisted by the six-member Privy Council and 10-member Executive Council, remained responsible solely to the crown. The Jamaican Legislative Council became the upper house, or Senate, of the bicameral Parliament. House members were elected by adult suffrage from single-member electoral districts called constituencies. Despite these changes, ultimate power remained concentrated in the hands of the governor and other high officials.[66][67]
Independent Jamaica (1962–present)
1960s
The road to independence
After World War II, Jamaica began a relatively
Having seen how little popular appeal the PNP's 1944 campaign position had, the party shifted toward the centre in 1949 and remained there until 1974. The PNP actually won a 0.8-percent majority of the votes over the JLP in the
Amendments to the constitution that took effect in May 1953 reconstituted the Executive Council and provided for eight ministers to be selected from among House members. The first ministries were subsequently established. These amendments also enlarged the limited powers of the House of Representatives and made elected members of the governor's executive council responsible to the legislature. Manley, elected
Assured by British declarations that independence would be granted to a collective West Indian state rather than to individual colonies, Manley supported Jamaica's joining nine other British territories in the
Membership in the federation remained an issue in Jamaican politics. Bustamante, reversing his previously supportive position on the issue, warned of the financial implications of membership – Jamaica was responsible for 43 percent of its own financing – and inequity in Jamaica's proportional representation in the federation's House of Assembly. Manley's PNP favoured staying in the federation, but he agreed to hold a
Jamaica received
Jamaica under Bustamante
Bustamante subsequently became the first
An extensive period of postwar growth transformed Jamaica into an increasingly industrial society. This pattern was accelerated with the export of bauxite beginning in the 1950s. The economic structure shifted from a dependence on agriculture that in 1950 accounted for 30.8 percent of GDP to an agricultural contribution of 12.9 percent in 1960 and 6.7 percent in 1970. During the same period, the contribution to the GDP of mining increased from less than 1 percent in 1950 to 9.3 percent in 1960 and 12.6 percent in 1970.[71]
Bustamante's government also continued the government's repression of Rastafarians. During the Coral Gardens incident, one prominent example of state violence against Rastafarians, where following a violent confrontation between Rastafarians and police forces at a gas station, Bustamante issued the police and military an order to "bring in all Rastas, dead or alive."[72] 54 years later, following a government investigation into the incident, the government of Jamaica issued an apology, taking unequivocal responsibility for the Bustamante government's actions and making significant financial reparations to remaining survivors of the incident.[73]
Jamaica under Donald Sangster and Hugh Shearer
Bustamante was succeeded as the prime minister in February 1967 by Donald Sangster, who in the same year died in office. Hugh Shearer, a protégé of Bustamante, succeeded Sangster and served from 1967 to 1972. Investments in tourism, bauxite mining, and light manufacturing industries fueled economic growth.
In October 1968 when the Shearer government banned Dr.
Reggae
Jamaica's
Early 1968 was when the first bona fide reggae records were released: "Nanny Goat" by Larry Marshall and "No More Heartaches" by The Beltones. That same year, the newest Jamaican sound began to spawn big-name imitators in other countries. American artist Johnny Nash's 1968 hit "Hold Me Tight" has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener charts. Around the same time, reggae influences were starting to surface in rock and pop music, one example being 1968's "Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da" by The Beatles.[75] Other significant reggae pioneers include Prince Buster, Desmond Dekker and Ken Boothe.
Bob Marley
1970s and 1980s
Michael Manley
In the election of 1972, the PNP's Michael Manley defeated the JLP's unpopular incumbent Prime Minister Hugh Shearer. Under Manley, Jamaica established a minimum wage for all workers, including domestic workers. In 1974, Manley proposed free education from primary school to university. The introduction of universally free secondary education was a major step in removing the institutional barriers to the private sector and preferred government jobs that required secondary diplomas. The PNP government in 1974 also formed the Jamaica Movement for the Advancement of Literacy (JAMAL), which administered adult education programs with the goal of involving 100,000 adults a year.
Land reform expanded under his administration. Historically, land tenure in Jamaica has been rather inequitable. Project Land Lease (introduced in 1973), attempted an integrated rural development approach, providing tens of thousands of small farmers with land, technical advice, inputs such as fertilisers, and access to credit. An estimated 14 percent of idle land was redistributed through this program, much of which had been abandoned during the post-war urban migration and/or purchased by large bauxite companies.
The minimum voting age was lowered to 18 years, while equal pay for women was introduced.[82] Maternity leave was also introduced, while the government outlawed the stigma of illegitimacy. The Masters and Servants Act was abolished, and a Labour Relations and Industrial Disputes Act provided workers and their trade unions with enhanced rights. The National Housing Trust was established, providing "the means for most employed people to own their own homes," and greatly stimulated housing construction, with more than 40,000 houses built between 1974 and 1980.[82]
Subsidised meals, transportation and uniforms for schoolchildren from disadvantaged backgrounds were introduced,[83] together with free education at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.[83] Special employment programmes were also launched,[84] together with programmes designed to combat illiteracy.[84] Increases in pensions and poor relief were carried out,[85] along with a reform of local government taxation, an increase in youth training,[86] an expansion of day care centres.[87] and an upgrading of hospitals.[87]
A worker's participation program was introduced,[88] together with a new mental health law[86] and the family court.[86] Free health care for all Jamaicans was introduced, while health clinics and a paramedical system in rural areas were established. Various clinics were also set up to facilitate access to medical drugs. Spending on education was significantly increased, while the number of doctors and dentists in the country rose.[87]
One Love Peace Concert
The
Edward Seaga
In the 1980 election, Edward Seaga and the JLP won by an overwhelming majority – 57 percent of the popular vote and 51 of the 60 seats in the House of Representatives. Seaga immediately began to reverse the policies of his predecessor by privatising the industry and seeking closer ties with the USA. Seaga was one of the first foreign heads of government to visit newly elected US president Ronald Reagan early the next year and was one of the architects of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, which was sponsored by Reagan. He delayed his promise to cut diplomatic relations with Cuba until a year later when he accused the Cuban government of giving asylum to Jamaican criminals.
Seaga supported the collapse of the
Seaga lost much of his US support when he was unable to deliver on his early promises of removing the bauxite levy, and his domestic support also plummeted. Articles attacking Seaga appeared in the US media and foreign investors left the country. Rioting in 1987 and 1988, the continued high popularity of Michael Manley, and complaints of governmental incompetence in the wake of the devastation of the island by
Hurricane Gilbert
In 1988,
As Gilbert lashed
-
Hurricane Gilbert approaching Jamaica on 12 September
-
Buildings destroyed by Hurricane Gilbert
-
People lined up to get water in the wake of Hurricane Gilbert
Birth of Jamaica's film industry
Jamaica's film industry was born in 1972 with the release of
1990s and 2000s
18 years of PNP rule
-
Michael Manley, Prime Minister from 1989 to 1992 (his second term)
-
P. J. Patterson, Prime Minister from 1992 to 2006
-
Portia Simpson-Miller, Prime Minister from 2006 to 2007 (her first term) and from 2012 to 2016
The
The date and tone of the election were shaped in part by Hurricane Gilbert, which made landfall in September 1988 and decimated the island. The hurricane caused almost $1 billion worth of damage to the island, with banana and coffee crops wiped out and thousands of homes destroyed. Both parties engaged in campaigning through the distribution of relief supplies, a hallmark of the Jamaican patronage system. Political commentators noted that prior to the hurricane, Edward Seaga and the JLP trailed Michael Manley and the PNP by twenty points in opinion polls. The ability to provide relief as the party in charge allowed Seaga to improve his standing among voters and erode the inevitability of Manley's victory. However, scandals related to the relief effort cost Seaga and the JLP some of the gains made immediately following the hurricane. Scandals that emerged included National Security Minister Errol Anderson personally controlling a warehouse full of disaster relief supplies and candidate Joan Gordon-Webley distributing American-donated flour in sacks with her picture on them.[100]
The election was characterised by a narrower ideological difference between the two parties on economic issues. Michael Manley facilitated his comeback campaign by moderating his leftist positions and admitting mistakes made as prime minister, saying he erred when he involved government in economic production and had abandoned all thoughts of nationalising industry. He cited the PNP's desire to continue the market-oriented policies of the JLP government, but with a more participatory approach.[101] Prime Minister Edward Seaga ran on his record of economic growth and the reduction of unemployment in Jamaica, using the campaign slogan "Don't Let Them Wreck It Again" to refer to Manley's tenure as prime minister.[102] Seaga during his tenure as prime minister emphasised the need to tighten public sector spending and cut close to 27,000 public sector jobs in 1983 and 1984.[103] He shifted his plans as elections neared with a promise to spend J$1 billion on a five-year Social Well-Being Programme, which would build new hospitals and schools in Jamaica.[104] Foreign policy also played a role in the 1989 election. Prime Minister Edward Seaga emphasised his relations with the United States, a relationship that saw Jamaica receiving considerable economic aid from the U.S. and additional loans from international institutions.[105] Manley pledged better relations with the United States while at the same time pledging to restore diplomatic relations with Cuba that had been cut under Seaga.[102] With Manley as prime minister, Jamaican-American relations had significantly frayed as a result of Manley's economic policies and close relations with Cuba.[106]
The PNP was ultimately victorious and Manley's second term focused on liberalising Jamaica's economy, with the pursuit of a free-market programme that stood in marked contrast to the interventionist economic policies pursued by Manley's first government. Various measures were, however, undertaken to cushion the negative effects of liberalisation. A Social Support Programme was introduced to provide welfare assistance for poor Jamaicans. In addition, the programme focused on creating direct employment, training, and credit for much of the population.[88] The government also announced a 50% increase in the number of food stamps for the most vulnerable groups (including pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children) was announced. A small number of community councils were also created. In addition, a limited land reform programme was carried out that leased and sold the land to small farmers, and land plots were granted to hundreds of farmers. The government also had an admirable record in housing provision, while measures were also taken to protect consumers from illegal and unfair business practices.[88]
In 1992, citing health reasons, Manley stepped down as prime minister and PNP leader. His former
Patterson led the PNP to resounding victories in the
A record 197 candidates contested the election,[111][112] with a new political party, the National Democratic Movement, standing in most of the seats.[113] The National Democratic Movement had been founded in 1995 by a former Labour Party chairman, Bruce Golding,[113] after a dispute over the leadership of the Jamaica Labour Party.[114]
The 1997 election was mainly free of violence
In winning the election the People's National Party became the first party to win three consecutive terms.[115] The opposition Jamaica Labour Party only had two more seats in Parliament after the election but their leader Edward Seaga held his seat for a ninth time in a row.[117] The National Democratic Movement failed to win any seats despite a pre-election prediction that they would manage to win a seat.[118]
The
The
Economic challenges
In the 1990s, Jamaica and other Caribbean banana producers argued for the continuation of their preferential access to EU markets, notably the United Kingdom.[122] They feared that otherwise the EU would be flooded with cheap bananas from the Central American plantations, with devastating effects on several Caribbean economies. Negotiations led in 1993 to the EU agreeing to maintain the Caribbean producers' preferential access until the end of Lomé IV, pending possible negotiation on an extension. In 1995, the United States government petitioned to the World Trade Organization to investigate whether the Lomé IV convention had violated WTO rules. Then later in 1996, the WTO Dispute Settlement Body ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, effectively ending the cross-subsidies that had benefited ACP countries for many years. But the US remained unsatisfied and insisted that all preferential trade agreements between the EU and ACP should cease. The WTO Dispute Settlement Body established another panel to discuss the issue and concluded that agreements between the EU and ACP were indeed not compatible with WTO regulations. Finally, the EU negotiated with the US through WTO to reach an agreement.[123]
In tourism, after a decrease in volume following the
2007 Cricket World Cup and 2008 Olympics
The
In sprinting, Jamaicans had begun their domination of the
Dancehall goes global
Although Jamaican
In the early 1990s songs by
The early 2000s saw the success of newer charting acts such as Elephant Man, Tanya Stephens, and Sean Paul. Dancehall made a resurgence within the pop market in the late 2000s, with songs by Konshens, Mr. Vegas, Popcaan, Mavado, Vybz Kartel, Beenie Man among others. In 2011, Vybz Kartel—at the time, one of dancehall's biggest stars—was arrested for the murder of Clive "Lizard" William. In 2014 he was sentenced to life in prison after a 65-day trial, the longest in Jamaican history.[141]
2010s
Tivoli Incursion
Politically and socially, the 2010s in Jamaica have been shaped by the
Coke took over the "Shower Posse" gang of Tivoli Gardens from his father, Lester “Jim Brown” Coke, in the 1990s. Under Christopher Coke's leadership, the gang trafficked drugs and dabbled in visa fraud (using a high-school athletics team) and extortion, charging small traders in the nearby market for “protection money”. The gang had close political ties. Tivoli Gardens is part of the Kingston Western parliamentary district, a seat was held for years by Edward Seaga, long-time leader of the JLP. That helped Coke expand into construction, with his company winning numerous government contracts. Within Tivoli Gardens, the gang operated as a government unto itself.[142]
On 23 May 2010, Jamaica security forces began searching for Coke after the United States requested his extradition,[143] and the leader of the criminal gang that attacked several police stations. The violence, which largely took place over 24–25 May, killed at least 73 civilians and wounded at least 35 others.[144] Four soldiers/police were also killed[144] and more than 500 arrests were made,[144] as Jamaican police and soldiers fought gunmen in the Tivoli Gardens district of Kingston.
Coke was eventually captured on 23 June, after initial rumours that he was attempting to surrender to the
In the four years following Coke's capture, Jamaica's murder rate decreased by nearly half.[147] However, the murder rate remains one of the highest in the world and Jamaica's morgues have not been able to keep up. The lack of facilities to store and study murder victims has been one of the reasons that few murders are solved, with the conviction rate for homicides standing at around five percent. In 2007, following the botched investigation into the death of Pakistan cricket coach Bob Woolmer, who died unexpectedly while the island hosted the sport's world cup, Jamaican politicians debated the need for a modern public morgue.[148]
2011 election
The
Although the JLP survived an election called shortly after the 2010 Tivoli Gardens incident, the following year the date of the
In 2012, Dane Lewis launched a legal challenge to Jamaica's Offenses Against Persons Act of 1864, commonly known as the "buggery" laws, on the grounds that they are unconstitutional and promote homophobia throughout the Caribbean. The legal challenge was taken to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. The Offenses Against Persons Act does not formally ban homosexuality, but clause 76 provides for up to 10 years' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, for anyone convicted of the "abominable crime of buggery committed either with mankind or any animal". Two further clauses outlaw attempted buggery and gross indecency between two men.[151]
LGBT rights returned to Jamaican headlines the next year, following the violent murder in July 2013 of a 16-year-old boy who showed up at a party in women's clothing. Advocates called for the repeal of a nearly 150-year-old anti-sodomy law that bans anal sex, legislation which is accused of helping spur anti-LGBT violence.[152]
Further economic troubles
In 2013, the International Monetary Fund announced a $1 billion loan to help Jamaica meet large debt payments. The loan required the Jamaican government to institute a pay freeze amounting to a 20% real-terms cut in wages. Jamaica is one of the most indebted countries and spends around half of its annual federal budget on debt repayments.[153]
The 2010s look to be a bad time for Jamaica's sugarcane industry. After a brief increase sugar prices, the outlook for Jamaican sugar took a hit in 2015 when the
However,
2016 election
In February 2016, opposition Labour Party won a narrow victory in the general election. Prime Minister Portia Simpson Miller of the People's National Party was replaced by Andrew Holness, the leader of the Labour Party.[156]
2020s
COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic was confirmed in Jamaica on 10 March 2020. This was during the 2019–2020 dengue fever epidemic that affected Latin America and the Caribbean.
The government announced a
On 11 January 2022, Jamaica overtook China in terms of the number of confirmed cases.
On 10 March, the Ministry of Health and Wellness (MoHW) confirmed the first case in Jamaica, a female patient who arrived from the United Kingdom on 4 March. The health minister reported that the patient has been in isolation since 9 March after showing respiratory symptoms. Following the update, the travel ban imposed was expanded to include France, Germany, and Spain.[159]
On 11 March, the country's health minister Christopher Tufton confirmed the second "imported
On 13 March, the country announced six additional cases – including the father and another female patient of the first patient.
On 15 March, the Ministry of Health and Wellness (MoHW) confirmed that 19 suspected cases were reported and the patients tested. Of the 19 suspected cases, only two patients were confirmed as having the virus - one coming from Trinidad and Tobago and the other who had "contact tracing from the index case". In the same update, the Ministry confirmed that there were twenty-seven patients in isolation facilities and that Patients 1 and 2 no longer exhibit any symptoms.[163]
On 16 March, the Ministry of Health and Wellness (MoHW) and the Office of the Prime Minister (OPM) reported that there were five preliminary confirmed cases.[164] Later that day, the government confirmed that only two of the five reported cases tested positive for COVID-19. In response to the increase in cases, the government announced further social distancing measures such as imposed remote work directives, the banning of all mass gatherings of more than 20 people, and the shuttering of bars, restaurants, sporting events, et cetera.[citation needed]
2020 election
In September 2020, the ruling centre-right Labour Party won a landslide victory in the general election. It took 49 of 63 parliamentary seats, meaning the incumbent Prime Minister Andrew Holness will serve a second term.[165]
See also
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Sources and further reading
- Accilien, C.; Adams, J.; Méléance, E.; Ulrick Jean-Pierre (2006). Revolutionary Freedoms: A History of Survival, Strength and Imagination in Haiti. Educa Vision Inc. ISBN 978-1-58432-293-1. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
- Bahadur, Gaiutra. Coolie Woman: The Odyssey of Indenture. The University of Chicago (2014) ISBN 978-0-226-21138-1
- Barringer, Tim., Forrester, Gillian, and Martinez-Ruiz, Barbaro. 2007. Art and Emancipation in Jamaica: Isaac Mendes Belisario and His Worlds. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11661-8.
- Bennett, Hazel. 1968. “Private and Subscription Libraries in Jamaica before 1879.” The Journal of Library History (1966–1972), vol. 3, no. 3, (1968) pp. 242–49. online
- Black, Clinton V. 1983. History of Jamaica. London: Collins Educational.
- Burnard, Trevor. 2012. "Harvest Years? Reconfigurations of Empire in Jamaica, 1756–1807." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 40.4 (2012): 533–555.
- Burnard, Trevor, and John Garrigus. 2016. The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue and British Jamaica (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
- Burnard, Trevor. Jamaica in the Age of Revolution (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2020).
- Cargill, Morris. (1956) "Jamaica and Britain" History Today (October 1956), 6#10 pp. 655–663.
- Coward, Barry (2002). The Cromwellian Protectorate. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-4317-8.
- Dawson, Andrew. 2013. "The social determinants of the rule of law: a comparison of Jamaica and Barbados." World Development 45 (2013): 314–324 online.
- Dunkley, Daive A. 2011. "Hegemony in Post-Independence Jamaica." Caribbean Quarterly 57.2 (2011): 1–23.
- Graham, Aaron. 2019. "Slavery, capitalism, incorporation and the Close Harbour Company of Jamaica, circa 1800." Business History (2019): 1–24.
- Henke, Holger. 2000. Between Self-Determination and Dependency. Jamaica's Foreign Relations 1972–1989, Kingston: University of the West Indies Press. ISBN 976-640-058-X.
- Johnson, Amy M. 2012. "Slavery on the Gold Coast and African Resistance to Slavery in Jamaica during the Early Colonial Period." LIMINA: A Journal of Cultural and Historical Studies 18 (2012) online.
- Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5.
- Ledgister, F. S. J. 1998. Class Alliances and the Liberal-Authoritarian State: The Roots of Post-Colonial Democracy in Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, and Surinam. Trenton: Africa World Press.
- Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors. New York: Neale.
- Leigh, Devin. 2019. "The origins of a source: Edward Long, Coromantee slave revolts and The History of Jamaica." Slavery & Abolition 40.2 (2019): 295–320.
- Leslie, Charles. (2015) A new history of Jamaica (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
- ISBN 978-1-906011-83-3
- Livesay, Daniel. 2012. "The decline of Jamaica's interracial households and the fall of the planter class, 1733–1823." Atlantic Studies 9.1 (2012): 107–123.
- Michener, James, A. 1989. Caribbean (especially Chap. XI. "Martial Law in Jamaica", pp. 403–442. Semi-fictional but mainly accurate). London: Secker & Warburg. ISBN 0-436-27971-1.
- Morales Padrón, Francisco. 1953 2003. Spanish Jamaica. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishers.
- Nelson, Charmaine A. 2017. Slavery, geography and empire in nineteenth-century marine landscapes of Montreal and Jamaica (Routledge, 2017).
- ISBN 0-385-06508-6.
- Pestana, Carla Gardina. (2017) The English Conquest of Jamaica (Harvard University Press, 2017).
- Sawh, Gobin, ed. 1992. The Canadian Caribbean Connection: Bridging North and South: History, Influences, Lifestyles. Halifax: Carindo Cultural Assoc.
- Smalligan, Laura M. 2011. "An Effigy for the Enslaved: Jonkonnu in Jamaica and Belisario's Sketches of Character." Slavery & Abolition 32.4 (2011): 561–581.
- Wikidata Q46935252.
- Williams, Eric. 1964. British Historians and the West Indies. Port of Spain: P.N.M. Publishing Company.
External links
- Jamaica – Entry from the 1907 Catholic Encyclopedia on Jamaica.
- Historic Jamaica. A pictorial guide to historic Jamaica
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