List of fascist movements

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This page lists political regimes and movements that have been described as fascist.

Whether a certain government is to be characterized as a fascist (radical authoritarian nationalist) government, an authoritarian government, a totalitarian government, a police state or some other type of government is often a matter of dispute. The term "fascism" has been defined in various ways by different authors. Many of the regimes and movements which are described in this article can be considered fascist according to some definitions but they cannot be considered fascist according to other definitions. See definitions of fascism for more information about that subject.

The Axis (1922–1945)

Italy (1922–1943)

Main article:
Italian Fascism

The first fascist country was

Italian Fascists imposed totalitarian rule and crushed political and intellectual opposition, while promoting economic modernization, traditional social values and a rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church
.

Italy was a leading member of the

King Victor Emmanuel III overthrew and arrested Mussolini, and the Fascist Party in areas (south of Rome) controlled by the Allied invaders was shut down. The new government signed an armistice with the Allies in September 1943. Mussolini was then rescued from prison by German paratroopers, and after his rescue, he was installed as the head of the "Italian Social Republic" in northern Italy, a state which continued to fight against the Allies alongside Germany.[1]

Germany (1933–1945)

Main article: Nazism

The

pseudo-scientific theories of a racial hierarchy[7] and social Darwinism, identifying the Germans as a part of what the Nazis regarded as an Aryan or Nordic master race.[8]

On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed

head of State. The Nazi Party then began to eliminate all sources of political opposition and it also began to consolidate its power. Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 and Hitler became dictator of Germany by merging the offices and powers of the Chancellery and the Presidency. Genocide and mass murder became hallmarks of the regime. Starting in 1939, hundreds of thousands of German citizens with mental or physical disabilities were murdered in hospitals and asylums. Einsatzgruppen paramilitary death squads accompanied the German armed forces inside the occupied territories and conducted the mass killings of millions of Jews and other Holocaust victims. After 1941, millions of others were imprisoned, worked to death, or murdered in Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. This genocide is known as the Holocaust
.

Japan (1926–1945)

Main article: Statism in Shōwa Japan

Right-wing elements in Japan, including industrialists, military officers, and the nobility, had long opposed democracy as an anathema to national unity. Military cliques began to dominate the national government starting in the 1930s. A major militarist nationalist movement which existed in Japan from the 1920s to the 1930s was the

Taisei Yokusankai, to consolidate all political parties under a single umbrella group. That same year, Japan joined Germany and Italy by signing the Tripartite Pact
.

Other countries

Austria (1933–1945)

Main article:
Austro-fascism

Engelbert Dollfuß's idea of a "Ständestaat" was borrowed from Mussolini. Dollfuß dissolved parliament and established a clerical-fascist dictatorship which lasted until Austria was incorporated into Nazi Germany through the Anschluss of 1938.[9]

Brazil (1932–1938)

Briefly, the regime of Getúlio Vargas aligned with Plínio Salgado's Integralist Party, a Brazilian "fascist" movement. Later Vargas launched his own cult of personality, that endures to this day, and took inspiration from Mussolini in a number of areas, such as labor law. The Brazilian Consolidation of Labor Laws, a decree issued by Vargas in 1943, has been described as partly inspired by Mussolini's laws of 1927.[10]

There are debates about whether the Vargas government was fascist or not. Some scholars have argued Vargas's leadership was clearly a version of fascism or drew substantial inspiration from fascism.

Caudillismo ideology, which is strongly Positivist, described as incompatible with Fascism's metaphysical, traditionalist, almost occultist ideas.[13] Vargas also led Brazil to join Allies side and declared war on the fascist Axis alliance in WW2. Brazil sent Expeditionary Forces
to help the Allies in multiple fronts.

China (1940–1945)

Main article: Chiangism

The

Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany
.

The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism, mixed with Christianity, nationalism and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism.[18] It rejected individualism and liberalism, while also opposing socialism and communism.

There is debate among scholars on whether Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist regime was fascist. Some historians such as Jay Taylor argued that Chiang’s ideology does not expouse fascism.[19] Other historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism".[20] Other historians argue that despite Chiang’s flaws and his authoritarian rule, his regime did not espouse the fascist ideology of totalitarianism and ultranationalism.[21] Chiang repeatedly attacked his enemies such as the Empire of Japan as fascistic and ultra-militaristic.[22][23] The Sino-German relationship also rapidly deteriorated as Germany failed to pursue a detente between China and Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. China later declared war on fascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of Declarations of war during World War II.

During World War II, the Wang Jingwei regime was a puppet state of the Empire of Japan established in 1940 in Japanese-occupied eastern China. The official name of this state was simply the Republic of China, but it is widely known as the "Wang Jingwei regime" so as to distinguish it from the Nationalist government of the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek, which was fighting with the Allies of World War II against Japan. Wang Jingwei was a high-ranking former Kuomintang (KMT) official, a rival of Chiang Kai-shek and a member of the pro-peace faction of the KMT. He defected to the Japanese side and formed a collaborationist government in occupied Nanjing in 1940. The new state claimed the entirety of China during its existence, but effectively only Japanese-occupied territory was under its direct control. Its diplomatic recognition was limited to other members of the Anti-Comintern Pact, of which it was a signatory. Wang Jingwei supported Hitler and Mussolini's ideals of a fascist state.[24]

Croatia (1941–1945)

Poglavnik Ante Pavelić, leader of the infamous Ustaše movement, came to power in 1941 as the Croatian puppet leader under the control of Nazi Germany. Under the indirect control of Germany, the Ustaše regime was based heavily upon both clerical fascism and the Italian model of fascism, with elements of racial integrity and organic nationalism drawn from Nazism.

France (1940–1944)

The

Vichy regime of Philippe Pétain, established following France's defeat by Germany, collaborated with the Nazis. However, the minimal importance of fascists in the government until its direct occupation by Germany makes it appear to seem more similar to the regime of Franco or Salazar than the model fascist powers. While it has been argued that anti-Semitic raids performed by the Vichy regime were more in the interests of pleasing Germany than in service of ideology, anti-semitism was a full component of the "National Revolution
" ideology of Vichy.

As early as October 1940 the Vichy regime introduced the infamous

concentration camps
as soon as 1940.

Also, in May 1941 the Parisian police force had collaborated in the internment of foreign Jews. As a means of identifying Jews, the German authorities required all Jews in the occupied zone to wear a yellow badge. On the 11 June, they demanded that 100,000 Jews be handed over for deportation.

The most infamous of these mass arrests was the so-called Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv) which took place in Paris on the 16 and 17 July 1942. The Vélodrome d'Hiver was a large cycle track situated on the rue Nélaton near the Quai de Grenelle in the 15th arrondissement of Paris. In a vast operation codenamed "Spring Breeze" (Vent printanier), the French police rounded up 13,152 Jews from Paris and its surrounding suburbs. These were mostly adult men and women however approximately 4,000 children were among them. Identifications for the arrests were made easier by the large number of files on Jews compiled and held by Vichy authorities since 1940. The French police, headed by René Bousquet, were entirely responsible for this operation and no German soldiers assisted. Pierre Laval, head of Vichy, included the children in the deportations to Auschwitz against general German orders. Most of the deportees sealed in the transports died en route due to lack of food or water. The few survivors were sent to the gas chambers. A few months later, a police operation took place in Marseille, known as the Battle of Marseille, and led to massive raids in the so-called "free zone", administrated by Vichy.

Greece (1936–1941)

The dictatorship of

Hitlerjugend, developed an armaments-centered economy, established a police-state akin to that of Nazi Germany (Greece received tactical and material support from Himmler, who exchanged correspondence with the Greek Minister of State Security Konstantinos Maniadakis) and brutality against communists in big cities such as Athens (communism was not known in the small towns and villages of Greece yet). The Colonel George Papadopoulos
' 1967 to 1974 military dictatorship, which was supported by the United States, however, was less ideological and lacked a clear fascist element other than militarism.

Hungary (1932–1945)

By 1932, support for right-wing ideology, embodied by

Operation Margarethe on 19 March 1944, no Jews were in direct danger of being annihilated. In July 1944, armor-colonel Ferenc Koszorús and the First Armour Division, under Horthy's orders, resisted the Arrow Cross militia and prevented the deportation of the Jews of Budapest, thus saved over 200,000 lives. This act impressed upon the German occupying forces, including Adolf Eichmann, that as long as Hungary continued to be governed by Horthy, no real Endlösung could begin. Following Horthy's attempt to have Hungary jump out of the war on 15 October, Szálasi, with German military support, launched Operation Panzerfaust and replaced Admiral Horthy as Head of State. The regime changed to a system more in line with Nazism and would remain this way until the capture of Budapest by Soviet troops. Over 400,000 Jews were sent by Hungary to German death camps from 1944 to 1945.[25][26]

Norway (1942–1945)

Vidkun Quisling had staged a coup d'état during the German invasion on 9 April 1940. This first government was replaced by a Nazi puppet government under his leadership from 1 February 1942. His party, the Nasjonal Samling, never had any substantial support in Norway, undermining his attempts to emulate the Italian fascist state.

Portugal (1933–1974)

The

Catholicism, but argued that the role of the Church was social, not political, and negotiated the Concordat of 1940
.

The other fascist movement was the

Italian Fascism. As Francisco Rolão Preto wrote in July 1922, "our organic syndicalism is essentially the basis of current syndicalist thought among Mussolini's friends".[31] MNS was also built on previous allegiances to Integralismo Lusitano, but it was not inspired by the Action Française as alleged by their adversaries.[32][33]

The leader Francisco Rolão Preto advocated the personalism of Emmanuel Mounier and some of the aspects of unionism. His unionist platform was based on leftist ideas of social justice, such as "a minimum family wage", "paid holidays", "working class education", and a world in which workers are "guaranteed the right to happiness".

In 1934, Salazar banned the National Syndicalists. Salazar denounced the National Syndicalists as "inspired by certain foreign models" and condemned their "exaltation of youth, the cult of force through direct action, the principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, and the propensity for organising masses behind a single leader".[34][35] However, Salazar adopted many of the traits he criticized the National Syndicalists for. Most of the National Syndicalists eventually joined the National Union, the party of the Estado Novo regime.[36]

Poland (1930s)

During the 1930s, the rise of fascist-inspired organizations occurred in Poland. Fascist organizations like the Association of Polish Fascists (Związek Faszystów Polskich) were however marginal and ephemeral. Fascist-inspired organizations were however stronger than parties with clearly fascist programs.

Sanacja
regime and continued to operate clandestinely. It was also involved in frequent street violence and anti-Semitic riots.

Romania (1940–1944)

Main article: Kingdom of Romania under Fascism

The Iron Guard turned more and more into a pro-Nazi and pro-German movement and took power in September 1940 when Ion Antonescu forced King Carol II to abdicate. However, the cohabitation between the Iron Guard and Ion Antonescu was short-lived.

During the 1930s, the group combined a mix of

feudal society. However, although widely popular for a period of time, the extremely violent and fanatically "death-romanticist" nature of the movement made it difficult for the Iron Guard to attract conservatives and middle class people, and as a result, the movement could never be as successful as the Nazi Party
.

The Antonescu regime that followed had elements of fascism, but it lacked a clear political program or party. It was more a

Mihai of Romania
.

Slovakia (1939–1945)

The Slovak People's Party was a quasi-fascist nationalist movement. It was associated with the Roman Catholic Church and founded by Father Andrej Hlinka. His successor Monsignor Jozef Tiso was a president of nominally independent Slovakia in 1939–1945. His government colleagues like Vojtech Tuka or Alexander Mach collaborate with fascism. The clerical element lends comparison with Austrofascism or the clerical fascism of Croatia, though not to the excesses of either model. The market system was run on principles agreeing with the standard Italian fascist model of industrial regulation.

Spain (1936–1975)

After the 1936 arrest and execution of its founder, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, during the Spanish Civil War, the fascist Falange Española Party was allied to and ultimately came to be dominated by Generalísimo Francisco Franco, who became known as El Caudillo, the undisputed leader of the Nationalist side in the war and, after victory, head of state until his death over 35 years later.

South Africa (1930s–1940s, 1948-1994)

There have been several waves of fascism in South Africa. Beginning with

BJ Vorster
was appointed a ‘General’ of the Ossewabrandwag. Vorster declared:

“We stand for

anti-democratic principle dictatorship if you wish. In Italy it is called Fascism, in Germany National Socialism and in South Africa, Christian Nationalism.”[38]

The Ossewabrandwag led

insurrections against the Union government
, resulting in some of the leadership, including Vorster, to be detained under emergency regulations. Towards the end of the war they were paroled on house arrest.

When the

1948 election
, former members of the Ossewabrandwag became members of the new government.

The election of 1948 saw the installation of Apartheid, which dramatically strengthened the

Supreme Court.[39]

Interned alongside BJ Vorster in 1942 was another Ossewabrandwag member Hendrik Johan van den Bergh who eventually went on to found the

death squads of Vlakplaas
and conducted other forms of state violence.

A later wave of fascism during the 1970s and 1980s created fringe right-wing groups such as the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging.

Yugoslavia (1935–1939)

Axis invasion of Yugoslavia
.

Fascism in liberal democracies

Prior to World War II, fascist or quasi-fascist movements also appeared in democratic nations, often taking their inspiration from the regimes established by Mussolini and Hitler.

Australia (1931–1940s)

The New Guard was founded in Sydney in 1931 and was opposed to the rule of the then New South Wales premier Jack Lang. The organisation was pro-Monarchy and anti-Communist and was led by World War I veteran Eric Campbell. At its height, the New Guard had a membership of over 50,000 and was almost exclusively based in New South Wales. Following the dismissal of the Lang government in 1932, the New Guard lost much of its momentum and officially disbanded in 1935.[41]

Another Fascist movement was the short-lived anti-semitic, anti-Communist and Nazi-inspired

Percy Stephensen.[42] The organisation was founded in October 1941 and existed until March 1942 when it was suppressed by Australian security agencies who believed the movement was supportive of the Axis Powers. Its leaders (including Stephensen) and several members were also interned.[43]

A small Nazi movement was founded among

German Australian community by Johannes Becker, a German migrant who arrived in Australia in 1927.[44][45] Becker had joined the NSDAP in 1932 and was appointed State Leader (Landeskreisleiter) for the South Pacific the following year. Following the outbreak of World War II, Becker was interned and released in 1946, then deported to West Germany the following year.[46]

Belgium (1930s–1945)

Main article:
Rexism

The

parliamentary democracy in Belgium. Many of its members assisted the Nazi occupation during World War II. The Verdinaso movement, too, can be considered fascist. Its leader, Joris Van Severen, was killed before the Nazi occupation. Some of its adepts collaborated, but others joined the resistance
. These collaborationist movements are generally classified as belonging to the National Socialist model or the German fascist model because of its brand of racial nationalism and the close relation with the occupational authorities.

Canada (1930s–1940)

In the 1930s, Canada had fascist fringe groups within it. One stronger group was the

French Canadian fascist movements united into the National Unity Party. In 1940, all fascist parties were banned under Canada's War Measures Act
.

Chile (1932–1938)

In Chile, during the 1930s, there was a fascist party named National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNS), ruled by Jorge González von Marées, a Hitler sympathizer. However, the MNS was dissolved in 1938.[47]

Esoteric Nazi Miguel Serrano gathered a following of Nazis, fascists and far-right occultists in Chile.

Finland (1929–1932)

The Lapua Movement, established in 1929, originally a nationalist movement that opposed Sweden and Russia, turned into a fascist movement in the early 1930s whose members were infamous for their violent and brutal methods. However, the party's origins could date back to the early 1920s, in anti-communist forces during the Finnish Civil War. They attempted a coup d'état in 1932, after which the movement was banned. The Lapua Movement, however, affected the selection of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud as the president and the passing of extensive anti-communist laws. Finland stayed a democracy throughout World War II, despite co-operating with Nazi Germany.

Ireland (1932–1933)

Fascist sympathizers led by General

Army Comrades Association, or "Blueshirts" in 1932 as a veterans organization. Renamed the National Guard, it provided physical protection for political groups such as Cumann na nGaedheal from intimidation and attacks by the IRA. The Blueshirts wanted to establish a corporate state in Ireland and frequently clashed with Republican supporters of the ruling Fianna Fáil, who were using force to disrupt that party's meetings. O'Duffy planned a parade in Dublin
in 1933, and the government, fearing a coup, banned the organization. In response to the banning of the National Guard, Cumann na nGaedheal and the National Centre Party merged to form a new party, Fine Gael, on 3 September 1933. Former Blueshirts under O'Duffy's leadership later fought for Franco during the Nationalist uprising in Spain.

Lebanon

In Lebanon, the Kataeb Party (Phalange) was formed in 1936, with inspiration of the Spanish Falange and Italian fascism. The founder of the party, Pierre Gemayel, founded the party after returning from a visit at the 1936 Summer Olympics. The party is still active today, although it has abandoned the Falangist and Fascist ideology in place of Phoenicianism, social conservatism, republicanism, and Christian fundamentalism.

Mexico (1930–1942)

A reactionary nationalist movement called Acción Revolucionaria Mexicana (

Plutarco Calles against the socialist[48] reformist president Lázaro Cárdenas
. The paramilitary group was banned in 1936 and the ARM officially disbanded in 1942, when Mexico declared war against the Axis.

The Netherlands (1923–1945)

The Verbond van Actualisten (Union of Actualists) was the oldest fascist movement in the Netherlands. It was established on 22 January 1923 and its ideology was based on Mussolini's Italian fascist movement. It ceased all activities in November 1928 after having had no success at all. It was succeeded by the Vereeniging De Bezem (Association 'The Broom') which was founded on 15 December 1928 by some men who previously were active in the Verbond van Actualisten. Its aim was to clean Dutch politics – hence the name. Its downfall in 1932 was caused by continuous discord between its leaders.

On 14 December 1931

NSDAP. In the years 1935–1936 the party embraced antisemitism
. Its best pre-war election result was 7.9% of the voters (1935). The maximum number of member of the NSB was 100,000 (around 1.25% of the Dutch population). Soon after the German occupation in May 1940 the NSB became the only allowed political party. During WWII the NSB was never given any real power, and instead, the Germans used the NSB for their own purposes. After the German defeat, the NSB disappeared.

On 29 June 1932 Jan Baars (previously active in the Vereeniging 'De Bezem') founded the Algemeene Nederlandsche Fascisten Bond (General Dutch Fascist Federation). It was the first Dutch fascist political party to gain significant election results and it had a considerable number of members. Its political views were quite moderate and it disapproved of German Nazi racism and antisemitism. It ended its existence in 1934. Its main successful successor was Zwart Front (Black Front), 1934–1941. Its leaders were of a Catholic origin and the party was strongly based on Italian fascism. During the pre-war period, it never established a prominent position like Mussert's NSB. After the German invasion in May 1940, the number of members rose from 4,000 to 12,000. The Germans prohibited Zwart Front in December 1941.

Other, smaller, fascist and Nazi parties were: Verbond van Nationalisten (Union of Nationalists, 1928–1934), the Nationaal-Socialistische Nederlandsche Arbeiders Partij (National Socialist Dutch Workers Party, 1931–1941), Nationaal-Socialistische Partij (National Socialist Party, 1932–1941), Nederlandsche Fascisten Unie (Dutch Fascist Union, 1933), Unie van Nederlandsche Fascisten (Union of Dutch Fascists, 1933), Oranje-Fascisten (Orange Fascists, 1933), Frysk Fascisten Front (Frisian Fascist Front, 1933), Corporatieve Concentratie (Corporative Concentration, 1933–1934), Verbond voor Nationaal Herstel (Union for National Restoration, 1933–1941), Nederlandsche Nationaal-Socialistische Partij (Dutch National Socialist Party, 1935) and the Nederlandsche Volkspartij (Dutch People's Party, 1938–1940).

Dutch fascism and Nazism is known for its lack of coherence and it was dominated by the egos of its leaders. An important fact for its marginal position in pre-war Dutch politics was the absence of a 'lost generation' of combatants of WWI.

Sweden (1926–1929)

The

Sveriges Fascistiska Folkparti (SFF; "Fascist People's Party of Sweden") was founded in 1926. Major figures of the party included its founding leader, Konrad Hallgren, a former German officer, and Swedish soldiers Sven Olov Lindholm and Sven Hedengren
.

In 1929 a delegation of the party, led by Hallgren and Lindholm, attended a major rally of the

Sveriges Nationalsocialistiska Folkparti (SNF; Swedish National Socialist People's Party). The SNF was one of several Swedish Nazi parties
.

United Kingdom (1932–1940)

Mussolini, established the British Union of Fascists in 1932 as a nationalist alternative to the three mainstream political parties in Britain. Even though the BUF only acquired a limited amount of success in some local elections, its existence caused frequent riots, the riots were usually instigated by members and supporters of Communist movements. Alarmed by the violence which was caused by the BUF, in 1936, the government passed the Public Order Act to restrict its activity. During the latter years of the decade, the party experienced a revival in popularity on the back of its anti-war campaign. The BUF was banned in 1940 and Mosley was interned for the duration of the war. The relative stability of democratic institutions, the long-time assimilation of Jews, and the lack of a strong, threatening Communist movement, had made it difficult for fascism to succeed in Britain.[49]

United States (1933–1941)

The Louisiana governor and politician Huey Long built a powerful state machine and at the time of his assassination in 1935, he was building a national following. Experts on the far left and the far right called him a fascist. Some historians reject this designation.[50]

In the late 1930s, some pro-German organizations seemed comfortable with fascist ideals. The

German-American Bund openly supported Nazi Germany, and, like the Silver Legion, it was banned during World War II. Charles Coughlin, a Roman Catholic priest, used his nationally syndicated radio show to promote anti-Semitic and pro-fascist views.[51]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Richard J. B. Bosworth, Mussolini's Italy: Life Under the Fascist Dictatorship, 1915–1945 (2007).
  2. ISBN 978-0131924697
    Quote: "Nazism was only one, although the most important, of a number of similar-looking fascist movements in Europe between World War I and World War II."
  3. ISBN 978-0230608658. Excerpt
  4. ISBN 978-0415812634
  5. ^ Kailitz, Steffen and Umland, Andreas (2017). "Why Fascists Took Over the Reichstag but Have Not captured the Kremlin: A Comparison of Weimar Germany and Post-Soviet Russia". Nationalities Papers. 45 (2): 206–221.
  6. ^ Evans (2003), p. 229.
  7. ^ Ramin Skibba (20 May 2019). "The Disturbing Resilience of Scientific Racism". Smithsonian.com. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
  8. ISBN 978-1429415064
    .
  9. ^ Anton Pelinka, The Dollfuss/Schuschnigg Era in Austria: A Reassessment (Routledge, 2017).
  10. ^ "Dois fatores contribuíram, de forma decisiva, na institucionalização da Justiça do Trabalho no Brasil, quais sejam: o surgimento das convenções coletivas de trabalho e a influência da doutrina da Itália, visto que nosso sistema acabou por copiar, em vários aspectos, o sistema italiano da Carta del Lavoro, de 1927, de Mussolini (regime corporativista)." Renato Saraiva and Aryanna Linhares.Curso de Direito Processual do Trabalho (2016)
  11. ^ Bakota, Carlos Steven, and Frank D. McCann. "Getulio Vargas and the Estado Novo: An Inquiry into Ideology and Opportunism." Latin American Research Review, vol. 14, no. 1, 1979, pp. 205–210. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2502832. Accessed 25 Nov. 2020.
  12. ^ Pinto A.C. (2020) Brazil in the Era of Fascism: The "New State" of Getúlio Vargas. In: Iordachi C., Kallis A. (eds) Beyond the Fascist Century. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46831-6_11
  13. ^ João Fábio Bertonha, "Between sigma and fascio: an analysis of the relationship between Italian Fascism and Brazilian Integralism." Luso-Brazilian Review (2000): 93–105. online
  14. JSTOR 652110
    . Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  15. ISBN 978-0299148744
    . Retrieved 2 February 2021.
  16. ISBN 978-0-520-23407-9. Archived
    from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  17. ISBN 978-0-7867-1484-1. Archived
    from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
  18. ^ Schoppa, R. Keith. The Revolution and Its Past. New York: Pearson Prentic Hall, 2nd ed. 2006, pp. 208–209 l.
  19. ISBN 978-0674054714
    .
  20. ^ Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism." The China Quarterly 150: 395–432.
  21. ^ Taylor 2009, pp. 102–103.
  22. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  23. ^ "Chiang Kai-shek's victory speech in 1945". 2013-06-09. Retrieved 2022-07-19 – via M.youtube.com.
  24. ISBN 0-88033-988-8
    . p. 255.
  25. ^ Guy Miron, The Waning of Emancipation: Jewish History, Memory, and the Rise of Fascism in Germany, France, and Hungary (2011).
  26. ^ Bodó, Béla. "Paramilitary violence in Hungary after the first world war." East European Quarterly 38.2 (2004): 129–173.
  27. ISBN 978-0313013348
    .
  28. ^ Kay 1970, p. 68.
  29. ^ a b Gallagher 2020, p. 43.
  30. ^ Gallagher 2020, p. 2.
  31. ^ Preto, R., 'Crónica social', Nação Portuguesa, 2ª série, Nº 1, July 1922, p. 34.
  32. ^ José Hipólito Raposo, Dois Nacionalismos – L'Action française e o Integralismo Lusitano, Lisboa, Férin, 1929.
  33. ISBN 0880339829
    .
  34. ISBN 0880339829
    .
  35. ^ Kay 1970, p. 55.
  36. ISBN 978-0313013348
    .
  37. ^ Dickens, Peter. "Christian Nationalism". The Observation Post. Retrieved 8 September 2023.
  38. ^ Dickens, Peter. "Christian Nationalism". The Observation Post.
  39. ^ "History". Supreme Court of Appeal. Retrieved 8 September 2023.
  40. ^ Dickens, Peter. "Christian Nationalism". The Observation Post. Retrieved 8 September 2023.
  41. ^ "New Guard Movement, 1931-35 – Fact sheet 183 – National Archives of Australia, Australian Government". 2019-03-05. Archived from the original on 2019-03-05. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  42. ^ "Nazism in Australia has a long history. Here's the short version". www.abc.net.au. 2019-01-16. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  43. ^ "Australia First Movement - Fact sheet 28 – National Archives of Australia, Australian Government". 2019-03-30. Archived from the original on 2019-03-30. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  44. ^ Herald Sun https://www.heraldsun.com.au/ipad/barossa-lied-about-war-injustice/news-story/9e77978638626617afc5da1c8cc057b2?sv=7b82061835890da72d15bd6aaa9f8662. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)[dead link]
  45. ^ "Nazism in Australia has a long history. Here's the short version". www.abc.net.au. 2019-01-16. Retrieved 2021-09-20.
  46. ^ "Becker, Johannes Heinrich (1898–1961)". Australian Dictionary of Biography. National Centre of Biography, Australian National University.
  47. ^ Diálogos-Revista do Departamento de História e do Programa de Pós-Graduação em História 13.1 (2009). online
  48. S2CID 146906012
    .
  49. ^ G. C. Webber, "Patterns of Membership and Support for the British Union of Fascists" Journal of Contemporary History (1984) 19#4 pp. 575-606 online
  50. ISBN 9780807141069
    .
  51. ^ Carl A. Sokoll, The German-American Bund as a model for American Fascism, 1924-1946 (Columbia UP, 1974).

Cited sources

Further reading

General

Fascist ideology

International fascism

  • Coogan, Kevin. 1999. Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia.
  • Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin's Press.
  • Ledeen, Michael A. 1972. Universal Fascism: The Theory and Practice of the Fascist International, 1928-1936. New York: H Fertig.
  • Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
  • Wallace, Henry. "The Dangers of American Fascism". The New York Times, Sunday, 9 April 1944.
  • Robert Soucy. French Fascism: the First Wave, 1924–1933, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1995. and French Fascism: the Second Wave, 1933–1939, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1995.
  • John Githongo's Stanford University Distinguished Visitor Lecture 05-02-15.[1]

External links

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