User:Musashiaharon/sandbox/Jewish diaspora
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The Jewish diaspora (
In terms of the
The first exile was the
It continued with the exile of a portion of the population of the Kingdom of Judah in 597 BCE with the
Following the
In 132 CE, the Jews under Bar Kokhba rebelled against Hadrian. In 135 CE, Hadrian's army defeated the Jewish armies and Jewish independence was lost. As punishment Hadrian changed the name of Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina, turned it into a pagan city and banned the Jews from living there. Judea and Samaria was renamed by Hadrian to Syria Palaestina.[2]
Throughout much of Jewish history, most Jews lived in the Diaspora.[3]
Origins of the term
The Greek word διασπορά (dispersion) appears in the
Pre-Roman diaspora
In 722 BCE, the
After the overthrow of the kingdom of Judah in 586 B.C. by
Although most of the Jewish people in this period, especially the wealthy families, were to be found in Babylonia, the existence they led there, under the successive rules of the
After numerous vicissitudes, and especially owing to internal dissensions in the Seleucid dynasty on the one hand and to the interested support of the pre-Roman Empire, pre-autocratic Roman Republic on the other, the cause of Jewish independence finally triumphed. Under the
Early diaspora populations
As early as the middle of the 2nd century BCE the Jewish author of the third book of the
To judge by the accounts of wholesale massacres in 115 BCE, the number of Jewish residents in
"No date or origin can be assigned to the numerous Jewish settlements eventually known in the West. While some were surely founded (and many certainly greatly increased) as a result of the dispersal of Judaean Jews from the Land of Israel and their expulsion from Jerusalem after the revolt of CE 66–70 (The First Jewish–Roman War, known as the Great Revolt) and the revolt of 132–135 (the Second Jewish–Roman War, known as the Bar Kochba Revolt), it is also known that there were already many Jews living outside of the Land of Israel before the Roman imperial oppression and decidedly before the Jewish uprisings for independence and freedom from Roman rule in their homeland—and before their uprisings were crushed. It is reasonable to conjecture that many, such as the settlement in Puteoli attested in 4 B.C., went back to the late (pre-Roman Empire) Roman Republic or early Empire and originated in voluntary emigration and the lure of trade and commerce."[11]
Roman destruction of Judea
Roman rule, which began in 63 BCE, continued until a revolt from CE 66–70, a Jewish uprising to fight for independence, was eventually crushed after four years, culminating in the capture of Jerusalem and the burning and destruction of the Temple, the centre of the national and religious life of the Jews throughout the world. Jerusalem was also destroyed.
The Jewish Diaspora at the time of the Temple’s destruction, according to Josephus, was in Parthia (Persia), Babylonia (Iraq), Arabia, as well as some Jews beyond the Euphrates and in Adiabene (Kurdistan). In Josephus’ own words, he had informed “the remotest Arabians” about the destruction.[13]
Exactly when Roman Anti-Judaism began is a question of scholarly debate, however historian H.H. Ben-Sasson has proposed that the "Crisis under Caligula" (37–41) was the "first open break between Rome and the Jews".[14]
The complete destruction of
Dispersion of the Jews in the Roman Empire
Following the 1st century
Many Jews entered the Diaspora as slaves after the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE and 135 CE. Although evidence for Jewish communities in the Diaspora is scanty until the fourth century,[16] many of these slave populations may have served as the basis of later European Jewish communities.[16]
While the majority of Jews lived outside Judea rather than in it, and long before the destruction of the Temple, the majority of Jewish people were already living in the Diaspora with perhaps as many as a million in Alexandria for example[17]—the Romans did not distinguish between Jews inside and outside of the Land of Israel/Judaea. They collected an annual temple tax, thereby treating all Jews as a distinct ethno-national group. The revolts in and suppression of communities in Egypt, Libya and Crete in 115–117 CE likely decimated the Jewish Diaspora population.[16]
After the
After this failed Jewish uprising the majority of Palestinian Jews were sold as slaves, killed or forced to seek refugee outside Palestine. In addition Hadrian encouraged non-Jews to settle the land. Although Jews maintained their presence in Palestine, they became disposed and dispersed people.[20] The concept of a Jewish people in exile entered normative medieval Jewish, Christian and Islamic thought and discourse.[21]
The widespread popular belief that there was a sudden expulsion of Jews from Judea/Syria Palaestina in 70 or 135 CE that led to the creation of the Diaspora is not correct.[22] The concept of exile is negligible in serious Jewish historical discussions.[23] The diaspora was a process that occurred over centuries starting with the Assyrian destruction of Israel, the Babylonian destruction of Judah, the Roman destruction of Judea, and the subsequent rule of Christians and Muslims. After the revolt, the Jewish religious center shifted to the Babylonian Jewish community and its scholars. The destruction of the Second Temple was responsible for a seismic change in communal Jewish self-perception and of their place in the world. For the generations that followed the event came to represent a fundamental insight about the Jews who were to become an exiled and persecuted people for much of their history.[24]
According to Israel Yuval the Babylonian captivity created a promise of return in the Jewish consciousness which had the effect of enhancing the Jewish self-perception of Exile after the destruction of the Second Temple, albeit their dispersion was due to an array of non-exilic factors.[25]
Post-Roman period Jewish populations
During the
By 1764 there were about 750,000 Jews in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The worldwide Jewish population (comprising the Middle East and the rest of Europe) was estimated at 1.2 million.[26]
Classic period: Jews and Samaritans
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים, Yehudim), also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group who mainly trace their origins to the ancient Israelites of the Levant, as well as other contributory peoples/populations. The
After the Persian conquest of Babylon in 539 BCE Judah (
The Babylonian Jewish community, though maintaining permanent ties with the Hasmonean and later Herodian kingdoms, evolved into a separate Jewish community, which during the Talmudic period assembled its own practices, the
Middle Ages
Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi (from the medieval Hebrew word for "Germany", as in medieval times some believed that the
In 2006, a study by Doron Behar and Karl Skorecki of the Technion and Ramban Medical Center in Haifa, Israel demonstrated that the vast majority of Ashkenazi Jews, both men and women, have Middle Eastern ancestry.
However, Dr. David Goldstein, a Duke University geneticist and director of the Duke Center for Human Genome Variation, has noted that the work of the Technion and Ramban team served only to confirm that genetic drift played a major role in shaping Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA, explaining that the Technion and Ramban mtDNA studies fail to actually establish a statistically significant link between modern Jews and historic Middle Eastern populations. This differs from the patrilineal case, where Dr. Goldstein said there is no doubt of a Middle Eastern origin.[28]
In June 2010, Behar et al. "shows that most Jewish samples form a remarkably tight subcluster with common genetic origin, that overlies Druze and Cypriot samples but not samples from other Levantine populations or paired Diaspora host populations. In contrast, Ethiopian Jews (
A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA by Costa et al., reached the conclusion that the four major female founders and most of the minor female founders had ancestry in prehistoric Europe, rather than the Near East or Caucasus. According to the study these findings 'point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities".[31]
A study by Haber, et al., (2013) noted that while previous studies of the Levant, which had focused mainly on diaspora Jewish populations, showed that the "Jews form a distinctive cluster in the Middle East", these studies did not make clear "whether the factors driving this structure would also involve other groups in the Levant". The authors found strong evidence that modern Levant populations descend from two major apparent ancestral populations. One set of genetic characteristics which is shared with modern-day Europeans and Central Asians is most prominent in the Levant amongst "Lebanese, Armenians, Cypriots, Druze and Jews, as well as Turks, Iranians and Caucasian populations". The second set of inherited genetic characteristics is shared with populations in other parts of the Middle East as well as some African populations. Levant populations in this category today include "Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, as well as North Africans, Ethiopians, Saudis, and Bedouins". Concerning this second component of ancestry, the authors remark that while it correlates with "the pattern of the Islamic expansion", and that "a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners," they also say that "its presence in Lebanese Christians, Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews, Cypriots and Armenians might suggest that its spread to the Levant could also represent an earlier event". The authors also found a strong correlation between religion and apparent ancestry in the Levant:
"all Jews (Sephardi and Ashkenazi) cluster in one branch; Druze from Mount Lebanon and Druze from Mount Carmel are depicted on a private branch; and Lebanese Christians form a private branch with the Christian populations of Armenia and Cyprus placing the Lebanese Muslims as an outer group. The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."[32]
Another 2013 study, made by Doron M. Behar of the Rambam Health Care Campus in Israel and others, suggests that: "Cumulatively, our analyses point strongly to ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews primarily from European and Middle Eastern populations and not from populations in or near the Caucasus region. The combined set of approaches suggests that the observations of Ashkenazi proximity to European and Middle Eastern populations in population structure analyses reflect actual genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to populations with predominantly European and Middle Eastern ancestry components, and lack of visible introgression from the region of the Khazar Khaganate—particularly among the northern Volga and North Caucasus populations—into the Ashkenazi community."[33]
Sephardic Jews
A large population of Sephardic refugees who fled via the Netherlands as Marranos settled in Hamburg and Altona Germany in the early 16th century, eventually appropriating Ashkenazic Jewish rituals into their religious practice. One famous figure from the Sephardic Ashkenazic population is Glückel of Hameln. Some relocated to the United States, establishing the country's first organized community of Jews and erecting the United States' first synagogue. Other Sephardim remained in Spain and Portugal as Anusim (forced converts to Catholicism), which would also be the fate for those who had migrated to Spanish and Portuguese ruled Latin America. Sephardic Jews evolved to form most of North Africa's Jewish communities of the modern era, as well as the bulk of the Turkish, Syrian, Galilean and Jerusalemite Jews of the Ottoman period.
Mizrahi Jews
Yemenite Jews
Karaite Jews
) as being equally binding on Jews, and mandated by God. In Rabbinical Judaism, the Oral Law forms the basis of religion, morality, and Jewish life. Karaite Jews rely on the use of sound reasoning and the application of linguistic tools to determine the correct meaning of the Tanakh; while Rabbinical Judaism looks toward the Oral law codified in the Talmud, to provide the Jewish community with an accurate understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures.The differences between Karaite and Rabbinic Judaism go back more than a thousand years. Rabbinical Judaism originates from the
Modern era
Israeli Jews
Jews of Israel comprise an increasingly mixed wide range of Jewish communities making aliyah from Europe, North Africa, and elsewhere in the Middle East. While a significant portion of Israeli Jews still retain memories of their Sephardic, Ashkenazi and Mizrahi origins, mixed Jewish marriages among the communities are very common. There are also smaller groups of Yemenite Jews, Indian Jews and others, still retaining a semi-separate communal life. There are also approximately 50,000 adherents of Karaite Judaism, most of whom live in Israel, but exact numbers are not known, as most Karaites have not participated in any religious censuses. The Beta Israel, though somewhat disputed as descendants of ancient Israelites, are widely recognized in Israel as Ethiopian Jews.
American Jews
The ancestry of most
French Jews
The Jews of modern France number around 400,000 persons, largely descendants of North African communities, some of which were Sephardic communities that had come from Spain and Portugal—others were Arab and
Anusim
During the Jewish diaspora, Jews who lived in Christian Europe were often attacked by the local population, and were often
Modern Samaritans
The
The Samaritans consider themselves Bnei Yisrael ("Children of Israel" or "Israelites"), but do not regard themselves as Yehudim (Jews). They view the term "Jews" as a designation for followers of Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by the exiled Israelite returnees, and not the true religion of the ancient Israelites, which according to them is Samaritanism.
Genetic analysis
Modern DNA studies have provided evidence that most of the world's Jews, Palestinians, Syrians and Lebanese, have a common ancestral lineage in the Levant, which can be traced to a common ancestral population that inhabited the Middle East some four thousand years ago. Maternally, both Jews and Samaritans have had very low rates of intermarriage with local or host populations.[37][38] Both populations' DNA results indicate the groups having had a high percentage of marriage within their respective communities; in contrast to a low percentage of interfaith marriages (as low as 0.5% per generation). One study on Ashkenazi Jews stated "Taken as a whole, our results, along with those from previous studies, support the model of a Middle Eastern origin of the AJ population followed by subsequent admixture with host Europeans or populations more similar to Europeans. Our data further imply that modern Ashkenazi Jews are perhaps even more similar with Europeans than Middle Easterners."[39] In 2006, a study by Doron Behar and Karl Skorecki of the Technion and Ramban Medical Center in Haifa, Israel demonstrated that 40% of Ashkenazi Jews, both men and women, belong to just 4 maternal lineages, which according to Doron, have a Middle Eastern source.[40]
According to Hammer, his study suggests that the Ashkenazi population expanded through a series of bottlenecks—events that squeeze a population down to small numbers—perhaps as it migrated from the Middle East after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE to Italy, reaching the Rhine Valley in the 10th century. Dr. David Goldstein, a Duke University geneticist and director of the Duke Center for Human Genome Variation, has noted that the Technion and Ramban team confirmed that genetic drift played a major role in shaping Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA, therefore mtDNA studies fail to draw a statistically significant linkage between modern Jews and Middle Eastern populations, however, this differs from the patrilineal case, where Dr. Goldstein said there is no question of a Middle Eastern origin.
A 2013 study of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA reached different conclusions. According to Costa et al., the four major Ashkenazi maternal lineages and most of the minor maternal lineages had a prehistoric European source, rather than a Near Eastern or Caucasian one. According to the study these findings 'point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities'[31]
A study by Haber et al. (2013) noted that while previous studies of the Levant, which had focused mainly on diaspora Jewish populations, showed that the "Jews form a distinctive cluster in the Middle East", these studies did not make clear "whether the factors driving this structure would also involve other groups in the Levant". The authors found strong evidence that modern Levant populations descend from two major apparent ancestral populations. One set of genetic characteristics which is shared with modern-day Europeans and Central Asians is most prominent in the Levant amongst "Lebanese, Armenians, Cypriots, Druze and Jews, as well as Turks, Iranians and Caucasian populations". The second set of inherited genetic characteristics is shared with populations in other parts of the Middle East as well as some African populations. Levant populations in this category today include "Palestinians, Jordanians, Syrians, as well as North Africans, Ethiopians, Saudis, and Bedouins". Concerning this second component of ancestry, the authors remark that while it correlates with "the pattern of the Islamic expansion", and that "a pre-Islamic expansion Levant was more genetically similar to Europeans than to Middle Easterners," they also say that "its presence in Lebanese Christians, Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews, Cypriots and Armenians might suggest that its spread to the Levant could also represent an earlier event". The authors also found a strong correlation between religion and apparent ancestry in the Levant:
"all Jews (Sephardi and Ashkenazi) cluster in one branch; Druze from Mount Lebanon and Druze from Mount Carmel are depicted on a private branch; and Lebanese Christians form a private branch with the Christian populations of Armenia and Cyprus placing the Lebanese Muslims as an outer group. The predominantly Muslim populations of Syrians, Palestinians and Jordanians cluster on branches with other Muslim populations as distant as Morocco and Yemen."[32]
Another 2013 study, made by Doron M. Behar of the Rambam Health Care Campus in Israel and others, suggests that: "Cumulatively, our analyses point strongly to ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews primarily from European and Middle Eastern populations and not from populations in or near the Caucasus region. The combined set of approaches suggests that the observations of Ashkenazi proximity to European and Middle Eastern populations in population structure analyses reflect actual genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to populations with predominantly European and Middle Eastern ancestry components, and lack of visible introgression from the region of the Khazar Khaganate—particularly among the northern Volga and North Caucasus populations—into the Ashkenazi community."[42]
The most detailed genetic analysis study was published in September 2014 by Shai Carmon and his team at Columbia University. The results of the study sampling 128 Ashkenazi Jews shows that today's 10 million Ashkenai Jews descend from a population of only 350 individuals who lived about 600–800 years ago. That population derived from both the Middle East and Europe.[43]
Zionist "Negation of the Diaspora"
According to Eliezer Schweid, the rejection of life in the Diaspora is a central assumption in all currents of Zionism.[44] Underlying this attitude was the feeling that the Diaspora restricted the full growth of Jewish national life. For instance the poet Hayim Nahman Bialik wrote:
- And my heart weeps for my unhappy people ...
- How burned, how blasted must our portion be,
- If seed like this is withered in its soil. ...
According to Schweid, Bialik meant that the "seed" was the potential of the Jewish people. Preserved in the Diaspora, this seed could only give rise to deformed results; however, once conditions changed the seed could still provide a plentiful harvest.[45]
In this matter Sternhell distinguishes two schools of thought in Zionism. One was the liberal or utilitarian school of Herzl and Nordau. Especially after the
The other was the organic nationalist school. It was prevalent among the Zionists in Palestine and saw the movement as a project to rescue the Jewish nation rather than as a project to rescue Jewish individuals. For them Zionism was the "Rebirth of the Nation".[46]
Contrary to the negation of the diaspora view, acceptance of the Jewish communities outside of Israel was postulated by those, like Simon Rawidowicz (also a Zionist), who viewed the Jews as a culture evolved into a new 'worldly' entity that had no reason to seek an exclusive return, either physical, emotional or spiritual to its ancient Land, and could remain one people even in dispersion.
It was argued that the dynamics of the diaspora which were affected by persecution, numerous subsequent exiles, as well as political and economic conditions created a new Jewish awareness of the World, and a new awareness of the Jews by the World.
In effect there are many Zionists today who do not embrace the "Negation of the Diaspora" as any kind of absolute, and who see no conflict—and even a beneficial and worldly and positive symbiosis—between a diaspora of healthily self-respecting Jewish communities (such as has evolved in the United States, Canada, and several other Western countries) and a vital and evolving Israeli society and state of Israel.
Mystical explanation
Rabbi Tzvi Elimelech of Dinov (Bnei Yissaschar, Chodesh Kislev, 2:25) explains that each exile was characterized by a different negative aspect:[47]
- The Sefirah of Gevurah, strength and bodily might.
- The Chessed, attraction and kindness (albeit to the self).
- Hellenistic civilization was highly cultured and sophisticated. Although the Greeks had a strong sense of aesthetics, they were highly pompous, and viewed aesthetics as an end in itself. They were excessively attached to the quality of Tiferet, beauty. This was also related to an appreciation of the intellect’s transcendence over the body, which reveals the beauty of the spirit.
- The exile of Malchut, sovereignty, the lowest Sefirah, which can receive from any of the others, and act as a medium for them.
The Jewish fast day of
According to
Historical comparison of Jewish population
Region | Jews, № (1900)[50] |
Jews, % (1900)[50] |
Jews, № (1942)[51] |
Jews, % (1942)[51] |
Jews, № (1970)[52] |
Jews, % (1970)[52] |
Jews, № (2010)[53] |
Jews, % (2010)[53] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Europe
|
8,977,581 | 2.20% | 9,237,314 | 3,228,000 | 0.50% | 1,455,900 | 0.18% | |
Austria | 1,224,899 | 4.68% | 9,000 | 0.11% | ||||
Belgium | 12,000 | 0.18% | 30,300 | 0.28% | ||||
Bosnia and Herzegovina
|
8,213 | 0.58% | 500 | 0.01% | ||||
Bulgaria/Turkey/Ottoman Empire[a] | 390,018 | 1.62% | 24,300 | 0.02% | ||||
Denmark | 5,000 | 0.20% | 6,400 | 0.12% | ||||
France | 86,885 | 0.22% | 530,000 | 1.02% | 483,500 | 0.77% | ||
Germany | 586,948 | 1.04% | 30,000 | 0.04% | 119,000 | 0.15% | ||
Hungary | 851,378 | 4.43% | 70,000 | 0.68% | 48,600 | 0.49% | ||
Italy | 34,653 | 0.10% | 28,400 | 0.05% | ||||
Luxembourg | 1,200 | 0.50% | 600 | 0.12% | ||||
Netherlands | 103,988 | 2.00% | 30,000 | 0.18% | ||||
Norway/Sweden | 5,000 | 0.07% | 16,200 | 0.11% | ||||
Poland | 1,316,776 | 16.25% | 3,200 | 0.01% | ||||
Portugal | 1,200 | 0.02% | 500 | 0.00% | ||||
Romania | 269,015 | 4.99% | 9,700 | 0.05% | ||||
Russian Empire (Europe)[b] | 3,907,102 | 3.17% | 1,897,000 | 0.96% | 311,400 | 0.15% | ||
Serbia | 5,102 | 0.20% | 1,400 | 0.02% | ||||
Spain | 5,000 | 0.02% | 12,000 | 0.03% | ||||
Switzerland
|
12,551 | 0.38% | 17,600 | 0.23% | ||||
United Kingdom/Ireland | 250,000 | 0.57% | 390,000 | 0.70% | 293,200 | 0.44% | ||
Asia | 352,340 | 0.04% | 774,049 | 2,940,000 | 0.14% | 5,741,500 | 0.14% | |
Arabia/Yemen | 30,000 | 0.42% | 200 | 0.00% | ||||
Taiwan/Japan
|
2,000 | 0.00% | 2,600 | 0.00% | ||||
India | 18,228 | 0.0067% | 5,000 | 0.00% | ||||
Iran | 35,000 | 0.39% | 10,400 | 0.01% | ||||
Israel | 2,582,000 | 86.82% | 5,413,800 | 74.62% | ||||
Russian Empire (Asia)[c] | 89,635 | 0.38% | 254,000 | 0.57% | 18,600 | 0.02% | ||
Africa
|
372,659 | 0.28% | 593,736 | 195,000 | 0.05% | 76,200 | 0.01% | |
Algeria | 51,044 | 1.07% | ||||||
Egypt | 30,678 | 0.31% | 100 | 0.00% | ||||
Ethiopia | 50,000 | 1.00% | 100 | 0.00% | ||||
Libya | 18,680 | 2.33% | ||||||
Morocco
|
109,712 | 2.11% | 2,700 | 0.01% | ||||
South Africa | 50,000 | 4.54% | 118,000 | 0.53% | 70,800 | 0.14% | ||
Tunisia | 62,545 | 4.16% | 1,000 | 0.01% | ||||
Americas | 1,553,656 | 1.00% | 4,739,769 | 6,200,000 | 1.20% | 6,039,600 | 0.64% | |
Argentina
|
20,000 | 0.42% | 282,000 | 1.18% | 182,300 | 0.45% | ||
Bolivia/Chile/Ecuador/Peru/Uruguay | 1,000 | 0.01% | 41,400 | 0.06% | ||||
Brazil | 2,000 | 0.01% | 90,000 | 0.09% | 95,600 | 0.05% | ||
Canada | 22,500 | 0.42% | 286,000 | 1.34% | 375,000 | 1.11% | ||
Central America | 4,035 | 0.12% | 54,500 | 0.03% | ||||
Colombia/Guiana/Venezuela | 2,000 | 0.03% | 14,700 | 0.02% | ||||
Mexico | 1,000 | 0.01% | 35,000 | 0.07% | 39,400 | 0.04% | ||
Suriname | 1,121 | 1.97% | 200 | 0.04% | ||||
United States | 1,500,000 | 1.97% | 4,975,000 | 3.00% | 5,400,000 | 2.63% | 5,275,000 | 1.71% |
Oceania | 16,840 | 0.28% | 26,954 | 70,000 | 0.36% | 115,100 | 0.32% | |
Australia | 15,122 | 0.49% | 65,000 | 0.52% | 107,500 | 0.50% | ||
New Zealand | 1,611 | 0.20% | 7,500 | 0.17% | ||||
Total | 11,273,076 | 0.68% | 15,371,822 | 12,633,000 | 0.4% | 13,428,300 | 0.19% |
a.
b.^ Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Belarus, Moldova, Russia (including Siberia), Ukraine.
c.
Today
As of 2010 the largest numbers of Jews live in
The
- Gush Dan (Tel Aviv and surroundings) – Israel – 2,979,900
- U.S.– 2,007,850
- Jerusalem – 705,000
- U.S.– 684,950
- Haifa – Israel – 671,400
- Miami, Florida– U.S. – 485,850
- Be'er Sheva – Israel– 367,600
- U.S.– 345,700
- Paris – France – 284,000
- U.S.– 270,500
- U.S.– 263,800
- U.S.– 229,100
- U.S.– 215,600
- London – United Kingdom – 195,000
- Toronto – Canada – 180,000
- U.S.– 119,800
- Moscow – Russia – 95,000
- U.S.– 89,000
- U.S. – 87,000[62]
- U.S.– 82,900
- Montreal – Canada – 80,000
See also
- African Jews
- Australian Jews
- Arab Jews
- Baghdadi Jews
- Banu Qurayza
- Bar Kokhba revolt
- British Jews
- Bukharan Jews
- East Asian Jews
- Haredi Judaism
- Hasidic Judaism
- Homeland for the Jewish people
- House of Israel (Ghana)
- Igbo Jews
- Italian Jews
- Judaism in Mexico
- Judaism in Nepal
- Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries
- Jewish tribes of Arabia
- Jews and Judaism in Europe
- Jews by country
- Jews in Indonesia
- Jews in Turkey
- Jews in Zimbabwe
- Jews of Bilad el-Sudan
- Mashhadi Jews
- Mizrahi Jews
- Moroccan Jews
- Return to Zion
References
Notes
- ^ Elazar, Daniel J. "The Jewish People as the Classic Diaspora: A Political Analysis". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
- ^ "The Bar-Kokhba Revolt". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 82.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 19 February 2012 (subscription required).
- ^ See for example, Kiddushin (tosafot) 41a, ref. "Assur l'adam..."
- ^ Simon Rawidowicz, Benjamin C. I. Ravid, Israel, the Ever-Dying People, and Other Essays, Associated University Presses, Inc., Cranbury, NJ., note p.80
- ^ Laura A Knott (1922) Student's History of the Hebrews p.225, Abingdon Press, New York
- ^ "In the beginning, when the Torah was forgotten by Israel, Ezra came from Babylonia and reestablished it. Later the Torah became forgotten again. Then came Hillel the Babylonian and reestablished it." Sukkah 20a
- ISBN 978-0-899-06455-0
- ^ Harald Hegermann (2008) "The Diaspora in the Hellenistic Age." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Vol. 2. Eds.: Davies and Finkelstein.PP. 115 - 166
- ^ E. Mary Smallwood (2008) "The Diaspora in the Roman period before A.D. 70." In: The Cambridge History of Judaism, Volume 3. Editors Davis and Finkelstein.
- ISBN 1439085781.
- ^ Josephus. The Jewish War. 1 – via PACE: Project on Ancient Cultural Engagement. Error:
chunkid
parameter is deprecated. Replace withsec
. when using {{PACEJ}} Error:Wchapter
parameter is deprecated. Replace withchap
. when using {{PACEJ}} Greek: Ἀράβων τε τοὺς πορρωτάτω = Preface to Josephus' De Bello Judaico, paragraph 2, "the remotest Arabians" (lit. "the Arabian [Jews] that are further on"). - Julio-Claudian empire. Until then—if one accepts Sejanus' heyday and the trouble caused by the census after Archelaus' banishment—there was usually an atmosphere of understanding between the Jews and the Empire ... These relations deteriorated seriously during Caligula's reign, and, though after his death the peace was outwardly re-established, considerable bitterness remained on both sides. ... Caligula ordered that a golden statue of *himself* be set up in the Temple in Jerusalem. ... Only Caligula's death, at the hands of Roman conspirators (41), prevented the outbreak of a Jewish-Roman war that might well have spread to the entire East."
- ^ "Academies in Palestine". JewishEncyclopedia.com.
- ^ a b c "Diaspora" entry in the Jewish Encyclopedia 1906
- ^ Ilan Ziv, Searching for Exile - BBC Four
- ^ https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10049.html
- ^ http://www.livius.org/ja-jn/jewish_wars/jwar06.html
- ^ Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789 By Marvin Perry P:87
- ^ http://www.jcpa.org/dje/articles2/classicdias.htm
- ^ No Return, No Refuge (Howard Adelman, Elazar Barkan, p. 159). "in the popular imagination of Jewish history, in contrast to the accounts of historians or official agencies, there is a widespread notion that the Jews from Judea were expelled in antiquity after the destruction of the temple and the "Great Rebellion" (70 and 135 CE, respectively). Even more misleading, there is the widespread, popular belief that this expulsion created the diaspora."
- ^ Bartal, Israel (July 6, 2008). "Inventing an Invention". Haaretz. Archived from the original on April 16, 2009.
Although the myth of an exile from the Jewish homeland (Palestine) does exist in popular Israeli culture, it is negligible in serious Jewish historical discussions.(Israel Bartal, dean of humanities at the Hebrew University)
- ^ "Book Calls Jewish People an 'Invention'". The New York Times. November 23, 2009. p. 2.
- ^ The Ten Lost Tribes: A World History (Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, Oxford University Press 2009) pp. 17–18"the dispersal of the Jews, even in ancient times, was connected with an array of factors, none of them clearly exilic"
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- ^ a b c Wade, Nicholas (January 14, 2006). "New Light on Origins of Ashkenazi in Europe". The New York Times.
- ^ a b Wade, Nicholas (June 9, 2010). "Studies Show Jews' Genetic Similarity". The New York Times.
- PMID 20531471.
- ^ PMID 24104924.)
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: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^ PMID 23468648.)
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: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link - ^ http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1040&context=humbiol_preprints
- ^ Spain invites descendants of Sephardic Jews expelled 500 years ago to return
- ^ http://www.karaite-korner.org/karaite_faq.shtml
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- ^ "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". New York Times. May 9, 2000.
- ^ "Reconstruction of Patrilineages and Matrilineages of Samaritans and Other Israeli Populations From Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation" (PDF). (855 KB), Hum Mutat 24:248–260, 2004.
- ^ http://www.pnas.org/content/107/37/16222.full
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/14/science/14gene.html
- ^ http://bhusers.upf.edu/dcomas/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/Behar2010.pdf
- ^ Cumulatively, our analyses point strongly to ancestry of Ashkenazi Jews primarily from European and Middle Eastern populations and not from populations in or near the Caucasus region. The combined set of approaches suggests that the observations of Ashkenazi proximity to European and Middle Eastern populations in population structure analyses reflect actual genetic proximity of Ashkenazi Jews to populations with predominantly European and Middle Eastern ancestry components, and lack of visible introgression from the region of the Khazar Khaganate—particularly among the northern Volga and North Caucasus populations—into the Ashkenazi community
- ^ "Schuster, Ruth 'Ashkenazi Jews Descend From 350 People, Scientists Say:Geneticists Believe Community Is Only 600-800 Years Old' (Sept 9, 2014) The Jewish Daily Forward"http://forward.com/articles/205371/ashkenazi-jews-descend-from--people-scientists/
- ISBN 0-8147-7449-0, p.133
- ^ Schweid, p. 157
- ISBN 0-691-01694-1, pp. 49–51
- ^ "Lessons from the Dreidel". Chabad.org.
- Tanakh, Lamentations4:22
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- ^ a b World Jewish Population Study 2010, by Sergio DellaPergola, ed. Dashefsky, Arnold , Sheskin, Ira M., published by Association for the Social Scientific Study of Jewry (ASSJ), North American Jewish Data Bank, The Jewish Federations of North America, November 2010
- ^ 2010 Brazilian census Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. Retrieved on 2013-11-13
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Further reading
- Immigration to Israel from North America hits 22-Year High CNSNews.com, December 30, 2005
External links
- Jewish Diaspora at the JewishEncyclopedia.com
- World Jewish Congress – Jewish Communities
- Research and articles about the diaspora experience and Israel-Diaspora relations on the Berman Jewish Policy Archive @ NYU Wagner
- The Diaspora and Israel – Rich Cohen