England in the late Middle Ages
Periods in English history |
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Timeline |
The history of England during the
At the accession of
The fourteenth century saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos and undermining the old political order. With a shortage of farm labour, much of England's arable land was converted to pasture, mainly for sheep. Social unrest followed in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.
Richard was deposed by
English government went through periods of reform and decay, with the
Political history
House of Plantagenet
Background
Henry III (1216–72)
When Henry III came to the throne in 1216, much of his holdings on the continent were occupied by the French and many of the barons were in rebellion as part of the
The barons were resistant to the cost in men and money required to support a war to restore Plantagenet holdings on the continent. In order to motivate his barons, Henry III reissued Magna Carta and the
Second Barons War and the establishment of Parliament
Friction intensified between the barons and the king. Henry repudiated the Provisions of Oxford and obtained a
Edward I (1272–1307)
Conquest of Wales
From the beginning of his reign Edward I sought to organise his inherited territories. As a devotee of the cult of King Arthur he also attempted to enforce claims to primacy within the British Isles. Wales consisted of a number of princedoms, often in conflict with each other. Llywelyn ap Gruffudd held north Wales in fee to the English king under the Treaty of Woodstock, but had taken advantage of the English civil wars to consolidate his position as Prince of Wales and maintained that his principality was 'entirely separate from the rights' of England. Edward considered Llywelyn 'a rebel and disturber of the peace'. Edward's determination, military experience and skillful use of ships ended Welsh independence by driving Llywelyn into the mountains. Llywelyn later died in battle. The Statute of Rhuddlan extended the shire system, bringing Wales into the English legal framework. When Edward's son was born he was proclaimed as the first English Prince of Wales. Edward's Welsh campaign produced one of the largest armies ever assembled by an English king in a formidable combination of heavy Anglo-Norman cavalry and Welsh archers that laid the foundations of later military victories in France. Edward spent around £173,000 on his two Welsh campaigns, largely on a network of castles to secure his control.[18]
Domestic policy
Because of his legal reforms Edward is sometimes called The English Justinian,[19] although whether he was a reformer or an autocrat responding to events is debated. His campaigns left him in debt. This necessitated that he gain wider national support for his policies among lesser landowners, merchants and traders so that he could raise taxes through frequently summoned Parliaments. When Philip IV of France confiscated the duchy of Gascony in 1294, more money was needed to wage war in France. To gain financial support for the war effort, Edward summoned a precedent-setting assembly known as the Model Parliament, which included barons, clergy, knights and townspeople.[19]
Edward imposed his authority on the Church with the
Expulsion of the Jews
The oppression of Jews following their exclusion from the guarantees of Magna Carta peaked with Edward expelling them from England.[21] Christians were forbidden by canon law from providing loans with interest, so the Jews played a key economic role in the country by providing this service. In turn the Plantagenets took advantage of the Jews' status as direct subjects, heavily taxing them at will without the necessity to summon Parliament.[22] Edward's first major step towards Jewish expulsion was the Statute of Jewry,[21] which outlawed all usury and gave Jews fifteen years to buy agricultural land. However, popular prejudice made Jewish movement into mercantile or agricultural pursuits impossible.[23] Edward attempted to clear his debts with the expulsion of Jews from Gascony, seizing their property and transferred all outstanding debts payable to himself.[24][25][26] He made his continued tax demands more palatable to his subjects by offering to expel all Jews in exchange.[27] The heavy tax was passed and the Edict of Expulsion was issued. This proved widely popular and was quickly carried out.[28]
Anglo-Scottish wars
Edward asserted that the king of Scotland owed him feudal allegiance, which embittered Anglo-Scottish relations for the rest of his reign. Edward intended to create a dual monarchy by marrying his son Edward to Margaret, Maid of Norway, who was the sole heir of Alexander III of Scotland.[29] When Margaret died there was no obvious heir to the Scottish throne. Edward was invited by the Scottish magnates to resolve the dispute. Edward obtained recognition from the competitors for the Scottish throne that he had the 'sovereign lordship of Scotland and the right to determine our several pretensions'. He decided the case in favour of John Balliol, who duly swore loyalty to him and became king.[30] Edward insisted that Scotland was not independent and that as sovereign lord he had the right to hear in England appeals against Balliol's judgements, undermining Balliol's authority. At the urging of his chief councillors, John entered into an alliance with France in 1295.[31] In 1296 Edward invaded Scotland, deposing and exiling Balliol.[32]
Edward was less successful in Gascony, which was overrun by the French. His commitments were beginning to outweigh his resources. Chronic debts had been incurred by wars against Flanders and Gascony in France, and Wales and Scotland in Britain. The clergy refused to pay their share of the costs, with the Archbishop of Canterbury threatening excommunication; Parliament was reluctant to contribute to Edward's expensive and unsuccessful military policies.
Edward II (1307–27)
Edward II's coronation oath on his succession in 1307 was the first to reflect the king's responsibility to maintain the laws that the community "shall have chosen" ("aura eslu").
Great Famine
In the spring of 1315 unusually heavy rain began in much of Europe. Throughout the spring and summer, it continued to rain and the temperature remained cool. These conditions caused widespread crop failures.[40] The straw and hay for the animals could not be cured and there was no fodder for livestock. The price of food began to rise, doubling in England between spring and midsummer.[41] Salt, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain because it could not be extracted through evaporation in the wet weather; it peaked in price in the period 1310–20, reaching double the price from the decade before.[42] In the spring of 1316 it continued to rain on a European population deprived of energy and reserves to sustain itself. All segments of society from nobles to peasants were affected, but especially the peasants who were the overwhelming majority of the population and who had no reserve food supplies.[43] The height of the famine was reached in 1317 as the wet weather continued. Finally, in the summer the weather returned to its normal patterns. By now, however, people were so weakened by diseases such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and tuberculosis, and so much of the seed stock had been eaten, that it was not until 1325 that the food supply returned to relatively normal conditions and the population began to increase again.[44]
Late reign and deposition
The Ordinances were published widely to obtain maximum popular support but there was a struggle over their repeal or continuation for a decade.[45] When Gaveston returned again to England, he was abducted and executed after a mock trial.[46] This brutal act drove Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster, and his adherents from power. Edward's humiliating defeat at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314 confirmed Bruce's position as an independent king of Scots. In England it returned the initiative to Lancaster and Guy de Beauchamp, 10th Earl of Warwick, who had not taken part in the campaign, claiming that it was in defiance of the Ordinances.[47][48] Edward finally repealed the Ordinances after defeating Lancaster at the Battle of Boroughbridge and then executing him in 1322.[49]
The War of Saint-Sardos, a short conflict between Edward and the Kingdom of France, led indirectly to Edward's overthrow. The French monarchy used the jurisdiction of the Parlement of Paris to overrule decisions of the nobility's courts. As a French vassal, Edward felt this encroachment in Gascony with the French kings adjudicating disputes between him and his French subjects. Without confrontation he could do little but watch the duchy shrink. Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, decided to resist one such judgement in Saint-Sardos with the result that Charles IV declared the duchy forfeit. Charles's sister, Queen Isabella, was sent to negotiate and agreed to a treaty that required Edward to pay homage in France to Charles. Edward resigned Aquitaine and Ponthieu to his son, Prince Edward, who travelled to France to give homage in his stead. With the English heir in her power, Isabella refused to return to England unless Edward II dismissed his favourites and also formed a relationship with Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March.[50] The couple invaded England and, joined by Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, captured the king.[51] Edward II abdicated on the condition that his son would inherit the throne rather than Mortimer. He is generally believed to have been murdered at Berkeley Castle by having a red-hot poker thrust into his bowels.[52] In 1330 a coup by Edward III ended four years of control by Isabella and Mortimer. Mortimer was executed, but although removed from power, Isabella was treated well, living in luxury for the next 27 years.[53]
Edward III (1327–77)
Renewal of the Scottish War
After the defeat of the English under the Mortimer regime by the Scots at
Hundred Years' War
In 1328
The delay caused by fundraising allowed the French to invade Gascony, and threaten the English ports
Both countries suffered from war exhaustion. The tax burden had been heavy and the wool trade had been disrupted. Edward spent the following years paying off his immense debt, while the Gascons merged the war with banditry. In 1346 Edward invaded from the Low Countries using the strategy of
Black Death
According to the chronicle of the
Poitiers campaign and expansion of the conflict (1356–68)
In 1356
Fighting in the Hundred Years' War often spilled from the French and Plantagenet lands into surrounding realms. This included the dynastic conflict in Castile between
French resurgence (1369–77)
Charles V of France resumed hostilities when Prince Edward refused a summons as Duke of Aquitaine and his reign saw the Plantagenets steadily pushed back in France.[85] Prince Edward went on to demonstrate the brutal character that some think is the cause of his name of the "Black Prince" at the Siege of Limoges. After the town had opened its gates to John, Duke of Berry, he directed the massacre of 3,000 inhabitants, men, women and children.[86] Following this the prince was too ill to contribute to the war or government and returned to England, where he soon died: the son of a king and the father of a king, but never a king himself.[87]
Prince Edward's brother
Richard II (1377–99)
Peasants' Revolt
The 10-year-old Richard II succeeded on the deaths of his father and grandfather, with government in the hands of a regency council until he came of age.
Deposition
A group of
House of Lancaster
Henry IV (1399–1413)
Henry's claim to the throne was that his mother had legitimate rights through descent from
Henry resumed war with France, but was plagued with financial problems, declining health and frequent rebellions.
Henry V (1413–21)
Henry IV died in 1413. His son and successor,
Henry VI (1421–71)
Led by Henry's brother
During the
Henry VI was a weak king, and has been seen vulnerable to the over-mighty subjects created by the decline into
Wars of the Roses
When Henry's sanity returned, the court party reasserted its authority. Richard of York and the Nevilles, who were related by marriage and had been alienated by Henry's support of the Percys, defeated them at a skirmish called the
Threatened with treason charges and lacking support, York,
House of York
Edward IV (1461–83)
The Scottish queen
Edward's preferment of the former Lancastrian-supporting Woodville family, following his marriage to
Edward V and Richard III (1483–85)
By the mid-1470s, the victorious House of York looked safely established, with seven living male princes, but it quickly brought about its own demise. Clarence plotted against his brother and was executed. Following Edward's premature death in 1483, his son Edward Prince of Wales became king, but Parliament declared him and his brother
Government and society
Governance and social structures
On becoming king in 1272, Edward I reestablished royal power, overhauling the royal finances and appealing to the broader English elite by using Parliament to authorise the raising of new taxes and to hear petitions concerning abuses of local governance.
By the time that Richard II was deposed in 1399, the power of the major noble magnates had grown considerably; powerful rulers such as Henry IV would contain them, but during the minority of Henry VI they controlled the country.
Women
Medieval England was a patriarchal society and the lives of women were heavily influenced by contemporary beliefs about gender and authority.[148] However, the position of women varied considerably according to various factors, including their social class; whether they were unmarried, married, widowed or remarried; and in which part of the country they lived.[149] Significant gender inequities persisted throughout the period, as women typically had more limited life-choices, access to employment and trade, and legal rights than men.[150]
The growth of governmental institutions under a succession of bishops reduced the role of queens and their households in formal government. Married or widowed noblewomen remained significant cultural and religious patrons and played an important part in political and military events, even if chroniclers were uncertain if this was appropriate behaviour.
The years after the Black Death left many women widows; in the wider economy labour was in short supply and land was suddenly readily available.
Identity
During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and
English began to be used as a second language of the court during the reign of Edward I.
Jews and the expulsion
Religion
Religious institutions
New religious orders began to be introduced into England in this period. The French
Pilgrimage
Heresy
In the 1380s several challenges emerged to the traditional teachings of the Church, resulting from the teachings of
Economy and technology
Geography
England had a diverse geography in the medieval period, from the
For much of the Middle Ages, England's climate differed from that in the twenty-first century. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries England went through the
Economy
The English economy was fundamentally
Economic growth began to falter at the end of the thirteenth century, owing to a combination of overpopulation, land shortages and depleted soils.[196] The Great Famine shook the English economy severely and population growth ceased; the first outbreak of the Black Death in 1348 then killed around half the English population.[196]
Rodney Hilton and other scholars have argued that those peasants who survived famine, plague and disease, found their situation to be much improved. The period 1350-1450 was for them a golden age of prosperity and new opportunities. Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and women especially benefited.[197] As population growth resumed, however, the peasants again faced deprivation and famine.[198][199]
Conditions were less favourable for the great landowners. The agricultural sector shrank rapidly, with higher wages, lower prices and diminishing profits leading to the final demise of the old demesne system and the advent of the modern farming system centring on the charging of cash rents for lands.[200] As returns on land fell, many estates, and in some cases entire settlements, were simply abandoned, and nearly 1,500 villages were deserted during this period.[201] A new class of gentry emerged who rented farms from the major nobility.[202] Attempts were made by the government to regulate wages and consumption, but these largely collapsed in the decades following the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.[203]
The English
Technology and science
Technology and science in England advanced considerably during the Middle Ages, driven in part by the
The period produced some influential English scholars.
Technological advances proceeded in a range of areas. Watermills to grind grain had existed during most of the Anglo-Saxon period, using
Warfare
Armies
In the late thirteenth century Edward I expanded the familia regis, the permanent military household of the king, which was supported in war by
English fleets in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries typically comprised specialist vessels, such as
Fortifications
During the twelfth century the Normans had begun to build more castles in stone, with characteristic square keeps that supported both military and political functions.[233] Royal castles were used to control key towns and forests, whilst baronial castles were used by the Norman lords to control their widespread estates; a feudal system called the castle-guard was sometimes used to provide garrisons.[234] Castles and sieges continued to grow in military sophistication during the twelfth century, and in the thirteenth century new defensive town walls were constructed across England.[235]
By the fourteenth century, castles were combining defences with luxurious, sophisticated living arrangements and landscaped gardens and parks.
Arts
Art
Medieval England produced art in the form of paintings, carvings, books, fabrics and many functional but beautiful objects. A wide range of materials were used, including gold, glass and ivory, the art usually drawing overt attention to the materials utilised in the designs.
During the period manuscript painting in England became again the equal of any in Europe, in
Literature, drama and music
Poetry and stories written in French were popular after the Norman conquest, and by the twelfth century some works on English history began to be produced in French verse.
Music and singing were important in England during the medieval period, being used in religious ceremonies, court occasions and to accompany theatrical works.
Architecture
During the twelfth century the Anglo-Norman style became richer and more ornate, with pointed arches derived from French architecture replacing the curved Romanesque designs; this style is termed Early English Gothic and continued, with variation, throughout the rest of the Middle Ages.[264] In the early fourteenth century the Perpendicular Gothic style was created in England, with an emphasis on verticality, immense windows and soaring arcades.[265] Fine timber roofs in a variety of styles, but in particular the hammerbeam, were built in many English buildings.[266] In the fifteenth century the architectural focus turned away from cathedrals and monasteries in favour of parish churches, often decorated with richly carved woodwork; in turn, these churches influenced the design of new chantry chapels for existing cathedrals.[267]
By the fourteenth century grander houses and castles were sophisticated affairs: expensively tiled, often featuring murals and glass windows, these buildings were often designed as a set of apartments to allow greater privacy.[268] Fashionable brick began to be used in some parts of the country, copying French tastes.[266] Architecture that emulated the older defensive designs remained popular.[269] Less is known about the houses of peasants during this period, although many peasants appear to have lived in relatively substantial, timber-framed long-houses; the quality of these houses improved in the prosperous years following the Black Death, often being built by professional craftsmen.[270]
Legacy
Historiography
In the sixteenth century, the first academic histories began to be written, typically drawing primarily on the chroniclers and interpreting them in the light of current political concerns.
By the 1930s, older historical analyses were challenged by a range of
Popular representations
The period has also been used in a wide range of popular culture.
Notes
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- ^ Myers 1978, pp. 102 and 105
- ^ a b Myers 1978, p. 105
- ^ Myers 1978, pp. 190–192
- ^ Liddiard 2005, pp. 60–62
- ^ Liddiard 2005, pp. 64–66
- ^ Dyer 2000, pp. 153–162
- ^ Bevington 2002, p. 432; Vincent 2007, p. 3
- ^ Sreedharan 2004, pp. 122–123
- ^ Dyer 2009, p. 4; Coss 2002, p. 81
- ^ Aurell 2004, p. 15; Vincent 2007, p. 16
- ^ Hinton 2002, pp. vii–viii; Crouch 2005, pp. 178–9
- ^ Dyer 2009, pp. 4–6
- ^ Rubin 2006, p. 325
- ^ Driver and Ray 2009, pp. 7–14
- ^ Tiwawi and Tiwawi 2007, p. 90
- ^ Airlie 2001, pp. 163–164, 177–179; Driver and Ray 2009, pp. 7–14
- ^ Ortenberg 2006, p. 175; D'haen 2004, pp. 336–337
- ^ Timmons 2000, pp. 5–6
- ^ Page 1997, pp. 25–26
- ^ Redknap 2002, pp. 45–46
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