War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II
OUN-UPA, Lithuanian Security Police | |
Casualties | |
---|---|
Around 5 – 6 million |
Part of Auschwitz , May 1944 |
Around six million Polish citizens
At the
These crimes were committed in
German-Soviet partitioning of Poland and cooperation (September 1939 – June 1941)
Following 1 September 1939 invasion of Poland from the west by Germany, the Soviets attacked from the east on 17 September in accordance with the terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, a secret non-aggression agreement signed in August.[7][8][9][10] Within a month, Poland had been divided between two occupational forces, and their joint victory parade was held in Brest-Litovsk. Germany annexed 91,902 square kilometres with 10 million citizens and controlled the newly created General Government, which consisted of a further 95,742 kilometres with 12 million citizens. In total, Germany's zone of occupation consisted of 187,644 square kilometres with 22 million citizens. The Soviet Union occupied 202,069 square kilometres with over 13 million citizens.[11][12] In 1939, the invading forces consisted of 1.5 million Germans[13] and nearly half a million Soviets.
Poland's territory was divided between Nazi Germany and the USSR, and was governed directly by the occupying countries, without establishing any form of Polish collaborating puppet authorities. The occupying powers' actions eclipsed the
In the summer and autumn of 1941 the lands annexed in the east by the Soviets, containing large Ukrainian and Belarusian populations, were overrun by Nazi Germany in the initially successful Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union.
Nazi German crimes against the Polish nation
The invasion of Poland (September 1939)
From 1 September 1939, the war against Poland was intended as a fulfilment of the plan described by
Indiscriminate executions by firing squad
From the very beginning of war against Poland, German forces carried out massacres and executions of civilians.[24] Many of these atrocities were not properly researched after the war due to the political divide between Eastern and Western Europe during the Cold War, wrote Böhler.[25] Polish eyewitness accounts do not identify the German units involved; that information is traceable only through German records. Therefore, the crimes committed by the Wehrmacht (the regular German army) were often wrongly attributed to SS operational groups in Polish historiography.[26] It is estimated that there were two hundred executions every day in September 1939.[27] Reinhard Heydrich, head of the Reich Security Main Office, complained that the rate was too slow.[27] Typically, the mass executions were conducted in public spaces such as the town square in order to inflict terror.[28]
Records show that during the German advance across Poland 531 towns and villages were burned.[29] By the end of September 1939 the names of settlements, dates and numbers of civilians executed by the Wehrmacht included: Starogard (2 September), 190 Poles, 40 of them Jews;[a] Świekatowo (3 September), 26 Poles;[b] Wieruszów (3 September), 20 Poles all Jews.[c] On 4 September 1939 the 42nd Infantry Regiment committed the Częstochowa massacre with 1,140 citizens or more, 150 of them Jews, murdered in wild shooting actions in several city locations, leading to a final bloodbath according to Polish reports, involving frightened and inexperienced troops opening machine gun fire at a crowd of 10,000 civilians rounded up as hostages in the Main Square.[d][f] The official Wehrmacht tally listed only 96 male and 3 female victims of the so-called "anti-partisan" action in the city.[30]
In Imielin (4–5 September), 28 Poles were killed;[e] in Kajetanowice (5 September), 72 civilians were massacred in revenge for two German horses killed by German friendly fire;[f] Trzebinia (5 September), 97 Polish citizens;[g] Piotrków (5 September), Jewish section of the city was set on fire;[h] Będzin (8 September), two hundred civilians burned to death;[i] Kłecko (9–10 September), three hundred citizens executed;[j] Mszadla (10 September), 153 Poles;[k] Gmina Besko (11 September), 21 Poles;[l] Kowalewice (11 September), 23 Poles;[m] Pilica (12 September); 36 Poles, 32 of them Jewish;[n] Mielec (13 September), 55 Jews burned to death;[p] Piątek (13 September), 50 Poles, seven of them Jews;[n] Mień (13 September), 9 Poles;[31] Olszewo (14 September), 13 people (half of the village) from Olszewo and 10 from nearby Pietkowo, Gabrysin and Marynki, along with 30 Polish prisoners of war;[31] Moskwin (14 September), 9 Poles.[32] On 14–15 September about 900 Polish Jews, mostly intelligentsia, were targeted in parallel shooting actions in Przemyśl and in Medyka; this was a foreshadowing of the Holocaust to come.[n] Roughly at the same time, in Solec (14 September), 44 Poles killed;[r] soon thereafter in Chojnice, 40 Polish citizens;[s] Gmina Kłecko, 23 Poles;[t] Bądków, 22 Poles;[u] Dynów, two hundred Polish Jews.[w] Public executions continued well beyond September, including in municipalities such as Wieruszów County,[33] Gmina Besko,[34] Gmina Gidle,[35] Gmina Kłecko,[36] Gmina Ryczywół,[37] and Gmina Siennica, among others.[38]
Along with civilians, captured Polish Army soldiers were also massacred. On the very first day of invasion (1 September 1939), Polish
Bombing campaigns
The invading German force was equipped with 2000 modern war planes, which were deployed on 1 September 1939 at dawn in Operation Wasserkante, thus opening the
The Luftwaffe took part in the mass killing by strafing refugees on the road.[7][46] The number of civilians wounded or killed by aerial bombing is put at over 100,000.[47] The Luftwaffe dropped thousands of bombs on urban centres inhabited only by civilian populations.[48] Amongst the Polish cities and towns bombed at the beginning of war were Brodnica, Bydgoszcz, Chełm, Ciechanów, Kraków, Częstochowa, Grodno, Grudziądz, Gdynia, Janów, Jasło, Katowice, Kielce, Kowel, Kutno, Lublin, Lwów, Olkusz, Piotrków, Płock, Płońsk, Poznań, Puck, Radom, Radomsko, Sulejów, Warsaw, Wieluń, Wilno, and Zamość.[46][48][49][50][7] Over 156 towns and villages were attacked by the Luftwaffe.[49] Warsaw suffered particularly severely with a combination of aerial bombardment and artillery fire reducing large parts of its historic city centre to rubble.[51] The Soviet Union assisted the Germans by allowing them to use a radio beacon from Minsk to guide their planes.[52]
During the German
were deployed in the rear and arrested or murdered civilians who were caught offering resistance against the Germans or who were considered to be capable of doing so, as determined by their position and social status.Extermination of Polish intelligentsia
Unternehmen Tannenberg
Immediately after invasion, the Germans employed the earlier prepared
Intelligenzaktion, including Intelligenzaktion Pommern and Sonderaktion Krakau
Tens of thousands of government officials, landowners, clergy, and members of the
AB-Aktion
The German occupiers subsequently launched AB-Aktion in May 1940—a further plan to eliminate the Polish intelligentsia and leadership class,[66] culminating in the Palmiry massacre (December 1940 – July 1941), in which two thousand Poles perished.[12][67]
Massacres following the German invasion of Polish territories annexed by the Soviet Union
The direct continuation of the AB Action was a German campaign in the east started after the
"War on the clergy"
The
German pacification and reprisal massacres
The large-scale pacification operations, sometimes called "
On 10 September 1939 the policy of collective punishment was introduced, resulting in destruction of villages and towns in the path of Polish defence lines. In
Terror killings committed by uniformed troops across Poland continued and between 2 October – 7 November 1939, over 8,866 Poles were murdered (53 of them Jews). Among the victims were in Otorowo (20 October), five or 19 Poles shot because a swastika flag was removed by someone;[61] Warsaw (22 November), announcement of the first anti-Jewish legislation: 53 Jews executed in public as punishment for one einheimischen Polizisten (local policeman) assaulted on the street;[67] Wawer (27 December), 106/107 murdered;[2][76][77]
By 1943, it was common for the public to be subject to mass murder.[76]
Warsaw Uprising massacres
Polish and German historians estimate that during the 1944
Massacres took place in the areas of
Timeline of civilian massacres during the Warsaw Uprising | |
---|---|
2 August 1944 | Mokotów Prison on Rakowiecka Street – about 500 prisoners murdered.[83] |
2 August 1944 | Jesuit monastery on Rakowiecka Street – about 40 Poles murdered, incl. 16 Jesuits.[83]
|
2 August 1944 | Ochota – All hostages executed.[83] |
4 August 1944 | Ochota – Start of methodical massacre of residents.[83] At Olesińska St. in Mokotów, up to 200 civilians blown up with hand granades thrown into a single basement.[84] |
5 August 1944 | Ochota – Beginning of wholesale massacre of Radium Institute patients and personnel – about 170 murdered in total .
|
5 August 1944 | Wola – Beginning of wholesale massacre of residents.[80] In total 10,000,[83] 20,000[79] or 40,000 residents murdered.[80] |
5 August 1944 | Wola – Wola Hospital – about 360 patients and personnel murdered.[79][83] |
5 August 1944 | Wola – St. Lazarus Hospital – about 1000 patients and personnel murdered.[79][83] |
6 August 1944 | Karol and Maria [Szlenkier] Children's Hospital – over 100 patients murdered.[79][83] |
8 August 1944 | Old Town – Germans set fire to historic buildings in the Old Town.[83] |
10 August 1944 | Ochota – Brigade SS-RONA are continuing to kill residents.[83] |
28 August 1944 | Polish Security Printing Works – Injured, field hospital staff and civilians sheltered in the basement are murdered.[83] |
29 August 1944 | Various – Germans murder old people and invalids from a captured municipal shelter.[83] |
2 September 1944 | Warsaw Old Town – 300 patients are murdered.[85]
|
2 September 1944 | Old Town – 7000 civilians are murdered.[83] |
More than 200,000 Poles were killed in the uprising.[66][86] Out of 450,000 surviving civilians, 150,000 were sent to labour camps in Germany,[87][88] and 50,000[87] to 60,000[83] were shipped to death and concentration camps.
Leveling of Warsaw following the fall of the Uprising
The atrocities preceded the
Extermination of psychiatric patients
In July 1939, a Nazi secret program called
In addition to executions by firing squad, other methods of mass murder were implemented for the first time at the hospital in Owińska. Some 400 patients, along with medical staff,
Cultural genocide
As part of the concerted effort to destroy
A basic issue in the solution of all these problems is the question of schooling and thus the question of sifting and selecting the young. For the non-German population of the East there must be no higher school than the four-grade elementary school. The sole goal of this school is to be-- Simply arithmetic up to 500 at the most; writing of one's name; the doctrine that it is a divine law to obey the Germans and to be honest, industrious, and good. I don't think that reading is necessary.
— Himmler's secret memorandum "Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East"[103]
In his capacity as Reich Commissioner, Heinrich Himmler oversaw the kidnapping of Polish children to be Germanised. Historians estimate that between 50,000 and up to 200,000 Polish children were taken from their families during the war. They were sent to farms and families in the Reich never to return.[66][104] Many of the children remained in Germany after the war unaware of their true origin.[12]
Ethnic cleansing, expulsions, exploitation, segregation and discrimination of Poles
At the end of October 1939, the Germans introduced the death penalty for active disobedience to the German occupation.
The Germans planned to change ownership of all property in the land incorporated directly into the
Roundups of Poles for forced/slave labour or for keeping as hostages
All Polish males were required to perform
Forced labour camps
The camp system where Poles were detained, imprisoned and forced to labour, was one of fundamental structures of the Nazi regime, and with the invasion of Poland became the backbone of German war economy and the state organized terror. It is estimated that some five million Polish citizens went through them.[116]
The incomplete list of camp locations with at least one hundred slave labourers, included in alphabetical order:
Concentration camps
Citizens of Poland, but especially ethnic Poles and Polish Jews, were imprisoned in nearly every camp of the
The
The most notorious concentration camps in occupied Poland as well as along Nazi German borders included: Gross-Rosen in Silesia, now part of Poland,[122] Janowska, Kraków-Płaszów, Poniatowa (reassigned from forced labour camp),[123] Skarżysko-Kamienna, Soldau, Stutthof,[122] and Trawniki.[123]
Massacres and death marches during German retreat
During the cold winter of 1944–1945 and temperatures dropping below −20 °C (−4 °F), the Germans perpetrated death marches of prisoners of various nationalities from concentration camps, forced labour camps and prisoner-of-war camps.[124][125][126][127]
In 1945, during the German retreat, the Gestapo, Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS carried out further massacres and executions of Polish civilians, such as in Chojnice (18 January 1945; 800 victims),[128] Wieniec-Zdrój (18 January; nine victims),[129] Płock (19 January 1945; 79 victims),[130] Ostrzeszów (20 January 1945; 14 victims), Pleszew (21 January 1945), Marchwacz (22 January 1945; 63 victims).[131]
The Final Solution and the Holocaust in German-occupied Poland
Treatment of Polish Jews under German occupation prior to the Holocaust
While ethnic Poles were usually subject to selective persecution in an effort to discourage them from resisting the Germans, all ethnic Jews were targeted from the outset.[12] During the first 55 days of the occupation approximately 5,000 Polish Jews were murdered.[132] As of 12 November 1939, all Jews over the age of 12,[133] or 14,[134] were forced to wear the Star of David.[133][134] They were legally banned from working in key industries and in government institutions; to bake bread, or to earn more than 500 zlotys a month.[135] Initially, the Jews were murdered at a lower rate than ethnic Poles.[134]
Jewish ghettos
At the beginning of the occupation, Jews were treated differently as they were gathered together into ghettos in the cities.
The Germans tried to divide the Poles from the Jews using several laws. One law was that Poles were forbidden from buying from Jewish shops; if they did so, they were subject to execution.[134] Maria Brodacka was the first Pole to be murdered by the Germans for helping a Jew. The Germans used the incident to murder 100 Jews being held as hostages. At the start of the war 1335 Poles were murdered for sheltering Jews.[67]
From 1940 to 1944, it is estimated that starvation and disease caused the death of 43,000 Jews imprisoned in the Holocaust ghettos.[140] In the Józefów Massacre, 1500 Jewish men, women, children and elderly, were killed.[141] Most Polish Jews subsequently perished in the German death camps. Towards the end of 1942, the mass extermination of Polish Jews had started with deportations from urban centres to death camps including Jews from outside Poland.[142]
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising
The Warsaw Ghetto was the largest of the Jewish
Extermination camps
Chełmno, Bełżec, Sobibor, and Treblinka
The first German murder camp in occupied Poland was established in late 1941 at
Following the
Auschwitz-Birkenau and Majdanek
The first Polish political prisoners began to arrive at Auschwitz I in May 1940. By March 1941, 10,900 were imprisoned there. In September 1941, some 200 ill prisoners, most of them Poles, along with 600 Soviet POWs,[154] were murdered in the first gassing experiments at Auschwitz. Beginning in 1942, Auschwitz's prisoner population became much more diverse, as Jews and other "undesirables" from all over German-occupied Europe were deported to the camp.[155]
About 960,000 Jews were murdered at Auschwitz amongst its 1.1 million victims, including 438,000 Jews from Hungary and 300,000 Polish Jews, 69,000 French Jews, 60,000 Dutch Jews, and 55,000 Greek Jews.
Ukrainian nationalist massacres in occupied Poland
For many years during the Soviet domination over
Following the German attack against the USSR, many ethnic Ukrainians viewed Nazi Germany as their liberator, in the hopes of establishing an independent Ukraine.[160] The ethnically motivated killings intensified after the Soviet occupation zone was overrun across the regions of Kresy. Some 200 Polish refugees were murdered at Nawóz.[161] Ethnic Ukrainians were also among the supporters of the rounding up and murdering of Jews.[162]
Numerous sources state that as soon as the Germans advanced toward Lviv, Ukrainian countrymen began to murder Jews in territories with predominantly Ukrainian populations.[163][164] It is estimated that, in this wave of pogroms across 54 cities, some 24,000 Jews were killed.[165] With many Jews already executed or fleeing, the organized groups of Ukrainian nationalists under Mykola Lebed began to target ethnic Poles,[5] including pregnant women and children.[5]
During the subsequent campaign of ethnic cleansing by Ukrainian nationalists gathered into paramilitary groups under the command of the
It is estimated that anywhere between 200,000
Some Poles also murdered ethnic Ukrainians in retaliation, as in the case of Pawłokoma.[171]
Lithuanian collaboration and atrocities during World War II
Lithuanian authorities had been aiding Germans in their actions against Poles since the very beginning of German occupation in 1941, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Poles.
In autumn 1943 Armia Krajowa started operations against the Lithuanian collaborative organization, the Lithuanian Security Police, which had been aiding Germans in their operation since its very creation.[176] Polish political and military underground cells were created all over Lithuania, Polish partisan attacks were usually not only in Vilnius Region but across the former demarcation line as well.[177] Soon a significant proportion of AK operations became directed against Nazi Germany allied Lithuanian Police and local Lithuanian administration. During the first half of 1944 AK killed hundreds of Lithuanians serving in Nazi auxiliary units or organizations: policemen, members of village self-defence units, servants of local administration, soldiers of the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force and other Nazi collaborators.[176][178] Civilians on both sides increasingly numbered among the casualties.[179][180][181]
In response, Lithuanian police, who had murdered hundreds of Polish civilians since 1941,[179] increased its operations against the Poles, executing many Polish civilians; this further increased the vicious circle and the previously simmering Polish–Lithuanian conflict over the Vilnius Region deteriorated into a low-level civil war under German occupation.[182] The scale of disruption grew over time; Lithuanian historian Stanislovas Buchaveckas noted, for example, that AK was able to paralyze the activities of many Lithuanian educational institutions in 1943.[183]
In May 1944, in the battle of Murowana Oszmianka AK dealt a significant blow to the Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force which has been terrorizing local Polish population.[178] At that time, Aleksander Krzyżanowski, AK commander of Vilnius region, commanded over 9000 armed Armia Krajowa partisans.
There are also claims of
Soviet war crimes against Poland
Soviet invasion of Poland
Amongst the first to suffer mass repressions at the hands of the Soviets were the Border Defence Corps. Many officers were murdered by the NKVD secret police immediately after capture. Polish General Olszyna-Wilczyński was shot without due process at the moment of his identification.[185] In the Wilno area all higher officers of the Polish Army died in captivity, the same as in Polesie, where 150 officers were already executed even before the remainder were taken prisoner. Uniformed men captured in Rohatyń were murdered along with their wives and children.[185]
On the Ukrainian front 5264 officers (including ten generals), 4096 non-commissioned officers and 181,223 soldiers were taken into captivity.
Katyn massacre of Polish military echelon by the NKVD
Following the invasion, in April and May 1940 the NKVD secret police perpetrated the single most notorious wartime atrocity against any prisoners of war held by the Soviet Union. In the
Among the victims of the massacre were 14 Polish generals, including Leon Billewicz, Bronisław Bohatyrewicz, Xawery Czernicki (admiral), Stanisław Haller, Aleksander Kowalewski, Henryk Minkiewicz, Kazimierz Orlik-Łukoski, Konstanty Plisowski, Rudolf Prich (murdered in Lviv), Franciszek Sikorski, Leonard Skierski, Piotr Skuratowicz, Mieczysław Smorawiński and Alojzy Wir-Konas (promoted posthumously).[195]
Soviet deportations as a means of ethnic cleansing
An estimated 1.2 to 1.7 million Polish nationals (entire families with children, women, men, and elderly) were loaded onto freight trains and deported to the eastern parts of the USSR, the Urals, and Siberia.[196] The Soviets used against Poles the same process of subjugation used against their own citizens for many years beforehand, especially mass deportations.[197] In 1940 and the first half of 1941, the Soviets removed Poles from their homes in four major waves.[2][198] The first deportation action took place from 10 February 1940 on,[199][200] with more than 220,000 victims,[201] sent to northern European Russia; the second, on 13–15 April 1940, affected 300,000 to 330,000 Poles,[201][202] sent primarily to Kazakhstan. The third wave, in June–July 1940, totalled 240,000–400,000 victims.[201] The fourth wave took place in June 1941, deporting 200,000 Poles including a large number of children.[203][204]
On top of deporting Polish citizens en masse, the Soviets forcibly drafted Polish men into the Red Army.[2] It is estimated that 210,000 young Polish males were conscripted as newly declared Soviet subjects following the annexation of Kresy.[140]
Cultural and economic destruction of Kresy
The invading Soviets set out to remove Polish cultural influences from the land under concocted premises of class struggle and dismantle the former Polish system of administration.
Religious education was forbidden. Schools were forced to serve as tools of communist indoctrination. Monuments were destroyed (for example, in Wołczyn, the remains of King
Ethnic tensions
The Polish territories were split between the Ukrainian and Byelorussian SSRs with Ukrainian and Belarusian declared as the official languages in local usage, respectively.
Soviet NKVD prisoner massacres, June–July 1941
Following the German attack on the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941,
According to the NKVD records, nearly 9,000 prisoners were murdered in the Ukrainian SSR in these massacres.[215] Due to the confusion during the rapid Soviet retreat and incomplete records, the NKVD number is most likely an undercounting. According to estimates by contemporary historians, the number of victims in the territories previously annexed to Soviet Ukraine (eastern Galicia, western Polesia, and western Volhynia) was probably between 10,000 and 40,000.[216] By ethnicity, Ukrainians comprised roughly 70 per cent of victims, with Poles at 20 per cent and the rest being Jews and other nationalities.[217]
The Soviets left thousands of corpses piled up in prison yards, corridors, cells, basements, and NKVD torture chambers, as discovered by the advancing Germans in June–July 1941. The following is a partial list of prisons and other secret execution places, where mass murder took place; compiled by historian Tadeusz Piotrowski, and others.[218]
In eight pre-war Polish
It was not only prisoners who were murdered by the NKVD as the Soviets retreated. Other Soviet crimes include Brzeżany, where Soviet soldiers threw hand grenades into homes, and Czortków, where four priests, three brothers and a tertiary were murdered.[222]
Deliberate halting of offensive against Germany during the Warsaw Uprising
The role of Soviets is debated by historians. Questions are asked about the Soviet political motives in halting their advance on the city during the uprising, thus allowing for the destruction to continue, and denying the use of their airfields to the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces.[223]
The end of German rule and the return of the Soviets (January 1945)
With the return of the Soviets, the killings and deportations started again.
The Home Army was made illegal. As a result, it is estimated up to 40,000 Home Army partisans were persecuted and many others deported.[225] In the Lublin area more than 50,000 Poles were arrested between July 1944 and June 1945.[222] It is suspected that the NKVD carried out killings in the Turza Wood where 17 bodies have been found,[226] although witnesses put the total at 600.[227] At Baran Wood, 13 bodies have been found but witnesses again claimed hundreds. Records show that 61 death sentences were carried out plus 37 in October 1944 alone.[227]
Internment of Polish nationals
Upon the conclusion of World War II, Poland remained under Soviet military control.
Estimated casualties of World War II and its aftermath
Around six million Polish citizens died between 1939 and 1945; an estimated 4,900,000 to 5,700,000 were murdered by German forces and 150,000 to one million by Soviet forces.[1][4][66][232]
In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead (including Polish Jews) at between 5.47 and 5.67 million (due to German actions) and 150,000 (due to Soviet), or around 5.62 and 5.82 million total.[233]
During World War II, Jews in Poland suffered the worst percentage loss of life compared to all other national and ethnic groups. The vast majority were civilians. On average, 2800 Polish citizens died per day during its occupation.[234] Poland's professional classes suffered higher than average casualties with doctors (45%), lawyers (57%), university professors (40%), technicians (30%), clergy (18%) and many journalists.[2]
It was not only Polish citizens who died at the hands of the occupying powers but many others.
See also
- Anti-Polish sentiment
- Chronicles of Terror
- Communist crimes (Polish legal concept)
- Consequences of Nazism
- Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions
- Generalplan Ost
- Historiography of the Volyn tragedy
- Hunger Plan
- List of Polish war cemeteries
- List of war crimes
- Military occupations by the Soviet Union
- Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
- Nuremberg trials
- Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)
- The Black Book of Communism
- World War II evacuation and expulsion
Notes
- The September Campaignagainst unarmed civilians in Poland:
- a. ^ Datner, Gumkowski & Leszczyński (1962, p. 127)
- b. ^ Datner, Gumkowski & Leszczyński (1962, p. 138)
- c. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 85)
- d. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 87)
- Museum of the History of Polish Jews, pp. 1–2 of 5, retrieved 25 January 2014,
Executions took place in front of, and in the courtyard of the townhall; behind the offices of the Wydział Techniczny Zarządu Miejskiego; at the New Market Square (currently Daszyński Square); inside the Church of św. Zygmunta; at Strażacka street in front of the Brass' Works; and at the Cathedral Square as well as inside the Cathedral.
- e. ^ Datner (1967, p. 187)
- f. ^ Böhler (2009, pp. 106–116)
- g. ^ Datner (1967, p. 239)
- h. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 86)
- i. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 87)
- j. ^ Datner (1967, p. 315)
- k. ^ Datner (1967, p. 333)
- l. ^ Datner (1967, p. 355)
- m. ^ Datner (1967, p. 352)
- n. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 88)
- Museum of the History of Polish Jews. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
- o. ^ Markiewicz (2003–2004, pp. 65–68)
- p. ^ Gilbert (1990, p. 87)
- r. ^ Datner (1967, p. 388)
- s. ^ Datner, Gumkowski & Leszczyński (1962, p. 131)
- t. ^ Datner (1967, p. 313)
- u. ^ Datner (1967, p. 330)
- w. ^ Datner (1967, p. 392)
Citations
- ^ a b Project in Posterum, Poland World War II casualties. Retrieved 20 September 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f Holocaust: Five Million Forgotten: Non-Jewish Victims of the Shoah. Remember.org.
- ^ AFP/Expatica, Polish experts lower nation's WWII death toll Archived 6 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Expatica.com, 30 August 2009
- ^ )
- ^ a b c d e Davies 1986, pp. 65, 351–352, 361.
- ^ Piotrowski 1998, p. 10, Soviet policies..
- ^ a b c d Davies 1986, p. 437.
- ^ ISBN 1-84176-408-6
- ^ 1 September – This Day in History. Archived 3 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b Piotrowski 1998, p. 77.
- ^ Piotrowski 1998, pp. 8–9.
- ^ a b c d e f Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nazi German Camps on Polish Soil During World War II.
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2005), The 1939 Campaign, Republic of Poland, archived from the original on 11 December 2013, retrieved 12 January 2014
- ^ Ferguson 2006, p. 417.
- ^ Borodziej 2006, p. 15: occupation policies.
- ISBN 1-905214-02-2. pp. 193–198. (Google Books preview)
- ^ Watt 1989, p. 590.
- ^ a b Browning 2007, p. 14.
- ^ Böhler 2009, p. 12.
- ^ Wardzyńska, Maria (2009), Był Rok 1939 [The Year Was 1939] (PDF) (in Polish), Institute of National Remembrance, pp. 25–27, archived from the original (PDF file, direct download 2.56 MB) on 3 March 2016, retrieved 20 January 2014 The ISBN printed in the document (978–93–7629–481–0) is bad, causing a checksum error.
- ^ Cyprian & Sawicki 1961, p. 42.
- ^ "Our century's greatest achievement". BBC News. 9 December 1998.
- ^ Halecki & Polonsky 1983, p. 307.
- ^ Garvin 1940, p. 15.
- ^ Böhler 2009, p. 18.
- ^ Böhler 2009, p. 19.
- ^ a b Browning 2007, p. 17.
- ^ Garvin 1940, p. 16.
- ^ Radzilowski, Thaddeus C., Ph.D.; Radzilowski, John, Ph.D. (2014). "The Genocide of the Poles, 1939–1948" (PDF). The Piast Institute: 12. Archived from the original (PDF file, direct download 416 KB) on 18 April 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
{{cite journal}}
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(help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - )
- ^ ISSN 0860-4096.
- ^ Monkiewicz, Waldemar; Krętowski, Józef (1986). "Zbrodnie hitlerowskie na ludziach chorych i niepełnosprawnych". Białostocczyzna (in Polish). No. 1. Białystok: Białostockie Towarzystwo Naukowe. p. 25.
- ^ Datner 1967, p. 171.
- ^ Datner 1967, p. 355.
- ^ Datner 1967, p. 267.
- ^ Datner 1967, p. 313.
- ^ Datner 1967, pp. 375–376.
- ^ Datner 1967, pp. 380–384.
- ^ Datner 1962, p. 11.
- ^ a b Piotrowski 1998, p. 23: reprint.
- ^ Snyder 2013, p. 121.
- ISBN 978-3-596-16307-6.
- ^ Browning 2007, p. 443: Note 99.
- ^ Szpytma, Mateusz (2009). "The risk of survival: rescue of the Jews by the Poles" (PDF file, direct download 6.26 MB). Institute of National Remembrance: 11/116. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Snyder 2013, p. 119: Wieluń.
- ^ a b Cyprian & Sawicki 1961, p. 65.
- ^ a b Ministry of Information, The German New Order in Poland: Part One, Hutchinson & Co., London, archived from the original on 1 February 2009, retrieved 20 October 2008
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Further reading
- Applebaum, Anne (2004). Gulag a History. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-028310-2.
- Benedetti, Leonardo de (2006). Primo Levi. London: Verso. ISBN 1-84467-092-9.
- Bruce, George (1974) [1972]. The Warsaw Uprising, 1 August – 2 October 1944. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-24096-X.
- Ciechanowski, Jan (1974). The Warsaw Rising. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20203-5.
- Dowing, Alick (1989). Janek: A Story of Survival. Letchworth: Ringpress. ISBN 0948955457.
- FitzGibbon, Louis (1989). Katyn Massacre. London: Corgi. ISBN 0552104558.
- Hanson, Joanna (29 October 1982). The Civilian Population and the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23421-2.
- Hergt, Klaus (2000). Exiled to Siberia: A Polish Child's World War II Journey. Cheboygan, Michigan: Crescent Lake. ISBN 0-9700432-0-1.
- Lewin, Abraham; Polonsky, Antony (1990) [1988]. A Cup of Tears: A Diary of the Warsaw Ghetto. Fontana. ISBN 0006375707.
- Orpen, Neil (1984). Airlift to Warsaw. London: Foulsham. ISBN 0-572-01287-X.
- Prazmowska, Anita (2004). Civil War in Poland, 1942–1948. Palgrave: Macmillan Basingstoke. OCLC 769773614.
- Sobierajski, Telesfor (1996). Red Snow: A Young Pole's Epic Search for his Family in Stalinist Russia. London: Leo Cooper. ISBN 0-85052-500-4.
- Schochet, Simon (1989). Attempt to Identify the Polish-Jewish Officers Who Were Prisoners in Katyn. Working Papers in Holocaust Studies. Vol. 2. New York: Yeshiva University. OCLC 19494328.
- Neufeld, Michael J.; Berenbaum, Michael (2000). The Bombing of Auschwitz: Should The Allies Have Attempted It?. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312198388.
- Cienciala, Anna M.; Lebedeva, N. S.; Materski, Wojciech (2007). Katyn: A Crime Without Punishment. New Haven: Yale University. ISBN 9780300108514.
- Zagorski, Waclaw (1957). Seventy Days. London: Frederick Muller. OCLC 10190399.
- Zawodny, J. K. (1978). Nothing but Honour: The Story of the Warsaw Uprising, 1944. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-12123-6.
External links