User:Abdel Rahman Samir/Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein | |
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| Doctoral advisor | Alfred Kleiner |
| Other academic advisors | Heinrich Friedrich Weber |
| Notable students | Ernst G. Straus Nathan Rosen |
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Albert Einstein (
Einstein's many contributions to physics include:
- The special theory of relativity, which reconciled mechanics with electromagnetism
- The general theory of relativity, a new theory of gravitation obeying the equivalence principle.
- Founding of relativistic cosmology with a cosmological constant
- The first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury
- Prediction of the gravitational lensing
- The first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules
- The theory of density fluctuations in gasses and liquids, giving a criterion for critical opalescence
- The thermodynamic properties of light
- The quantum theory of atomic motion in solids
- Zero-point energy
- The semiclassical version of the Schrödinger equation
- Relations for atomic transition probabilities which predicted stimulated emission
- The quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted Bose-Einstein condensation
- The EPR paradox
- A program for a unified field theory
- The geometrization of fundamental physics.
Einstein published
Early life and education
Albert Einstein was born in
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The Einsteins, although of Jewish ancestry, did not observe Jewish religious practices, and their son attended a
In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the
Einstein applied directly to the
In the same year, Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also entered the Polytechnic to study mathematics and physics, the only woman in the academic cohort. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship developed into romance. In a letter to her, Einstein called Marić "a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am."[16] Einstein graduated in 1900 from the Polytechnic with a diploma in mathematics and physics;[17] Although historians have debated whether Marić influenced Einstein's work, the overwhelming consensus amongst academic historians of science is that she did not.[18][19][20]
Abdel Rahman Samir/Albert Einstein | |
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| Spouse(s) | 1. Eduard Einstein , 28 July 1910 |
Marriages and children
In early 1902, Einstein and
Patent office
After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[24] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he "fully mastered machine technology".[25]
Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.[26]
With friends he met in Bern, Einstein formed a weekly discussion club on science and philosophy, which he jokingly named "The Olympia Academy." Their readings included Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, who influenced Einstein's scientific and philosophical outlook. The next year, Einstein published a paper in the prestigious Annalen der Physik on the capillary forces of a straw.[27]
Scientific career
Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. Most were about physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions about pacifism, socialism, and zionism.[5][6] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.[28]
Physics in 1900
Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that atoms exist, and have a finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet completely accepted by physicists that atoms were real, even though chemists had good evidence ever since Antoine Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were skeptical was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties of matter from the properties of atoms.
Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who had struggled for years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's way of thinking, the entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up is only because it is more likely for a system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal configurations to a more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was a minority position.
The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk Maxwell, another leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity of a gas should be independent of density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density goes to zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low densities. A subsequent experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating slitted drum, showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's distribution law.
In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical
Similarly, a gas made up of two atoms can be thought of as two balls on a spring. This spring has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra kB to the specific heat. It does at room temperature, but at low temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other contributions to the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was inconsistent with classical physics.
The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a box can be thought of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is obviously wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked up into light waves, and everything would slow down and stop.
These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but mathematical. Notable among the skeptics was
Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a single consistent theory should explain all observation, and that this theory would be a description what was really going on, underneath it all. So he set out to show that the atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to statistical physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.
In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics journal,
Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with
His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena. As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to effects which can be observed. This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were well within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the content of his PhD thesis.[31]
His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in equilibrium, a system has a maximum entropy. According to the statistical interpretation, the entropy can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that the statistical fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be completely determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the position of the mirror. This makes a connection between microscopic and macroscopic objects.
Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory of fluctuations, he realized, would have a visible effect for an object which could move around freely. Such an object would have a velocity which is random, and would move around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the object would be kT, and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the law of friction.
The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by
These experiments were carried out a few years later, and gave a rough estimate of Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to
Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of
The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis papers, but it had an important role in securing the acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.
Special relativity
His 1905 paper on the
Photons
In a 1905 paper,
Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic considerations. He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen years later. Einstein considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency part and a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by Wien's law, has an entropy which looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of classical particles.
Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes that the number of states of short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal to the number of states of a group of localizable particles in the same box. Since unlike others, he was comfortable of the statistical interpretation, he confidently postulates that the light itself is made up out of localized particles, since this is the only reasonable interpretation of the entropy.
This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of
Quantized atomic vibrations
Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific heat anomaly in solids. This was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators had no problem with infinite specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.
Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting all the atoms to each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB, since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.
Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model are quantized, according to the Planck law, so that each independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation. With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The result was the same as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller than hf, the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.
So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of classical physics, the specific heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this formulation are now called
This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.
Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After
Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments
Wave-particle duality
Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.[41] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics.
Theory of Critical Opalescence
Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to
Zero-point energy
Einstein's unerring physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.
Principle of equivalence
In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he would call his "happiest thought". He realized that the principle of relativity could be extended to gravitational fields. He thought about the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in an unchanging gravitational field.[43]He used special relativity to see that the rate of clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of clocks at the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational potential to first approximation.
Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light by gravity, and show that it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of gravity proposed by
From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar eclipse.[44] German astronomer Erwin Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.[45]
Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909-1912, studying its properties by means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making experiments on a rotating turntable. He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but according to special relativity, the circumference would seem to be longer, because the ruler would be contracted.
Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study Riemannian geometry, and to formulate General relativity in this language.
Hole argument and Entwurf theory
While developing General relativity, Einstein became confused about the
The Entwurf theory was the result of these investigations. As it name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than General Relativity, Einstein abandoned the theory after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.
General relativity
In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his
In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The
One of the 1919 eclipse photographs taken during
Cosmology
In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the
Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey
Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.
Modern quantum theory
In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[58] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.
Bose-Einstein statistics
In 1924, Einstein received a description of a
Energy momentum pseudotensor
General Relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum.
Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the noncovariante energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.
The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by
Unified field theory
Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation, which would allow the explanation of electromagnetism. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation." [61] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the
Wormholes
Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted Schwartschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.
If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.
Einstein-Cartan theory
In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.
He then used a hypothesis of
This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.
Equations of motion
The theory of general relativity has two fundamental laws--- the
Since the equations of General Relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from General Relativity itself.
This was established by Einstein, Infeld and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.
Einstein's mistakes
In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's papers contain mistakes:
- 1905: In the original German version of the special relativity paper, and in some English translations, Einstein gives a wrong expression for the transverse mass of a fast moving particle. The transverse mass is the antiquated name for the ratio of the 3-force to the 3-acceleration when the force is perpendicular to the velocity. Einstein gives this ratio as , while the actual value is (corrected by Max Planck).
- 1905: In his PhD dissertation, the friction in dilute solutions has an miscalculated numerical prefactor, which makes the estimate of Avogadro's number off by a factor of 3. The mistake is corrected by Einstein in a later publication.
- 1905: An expository paper explaining how airplanes fly includes an example which is incorrect. There is a wing which he claims will generate lift. This wing is flat on the bottom, and flat on the top, with a small bump at the center. It is designed to generate lift by Bernoulli's principle, and Einstein claims that it will. Simple action reaction considerations, though, show that the wing will not generate lift, at least if it is long enough.
- 1911: Einstein predicted how much the sun’s gravity would deflect nearby starlight, but used an approximation which gives an answer which is half as big as the correct one.[62]
- 1913: Einstein started writing papers based on his belief that the hole argument made general covariance impossible in a theory of gravity.
- 1922: Einstein published a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum mechanics, and is well understood to be completely wrong. The correct BCS theory of low temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the establishing of modern quantum mechanics.
- 1937: Einstein believed that the focussing properties of geodesics in general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this position a short time later, but his collaborator Nathan Rosen continued to maintain that gravitational waves are unstable until his death.
- 1939: Einstein denied that black holes could form several times, the last time in print. He published a paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through stationary states the way Einstein imagined.
In addition to these well established mistakes, there are other arguments whose deduction is considered correct, but whose interpretation or philosophical conclusion is considered to have been incorrect:
- In the Bohr–Einstein debates and the papers following this, Einstein tries to poke holes in the uncertainty principle, ingeniously, but unsuccessfully.
- In the Bell's inequalityshow that hidden variables, if they exist, must be nonlocal.
Einstein himself considered his 1917 paper founding cosmology as a 'blunder'. The theory of General Relativity predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a blunder--- the cosmological constant is necessary within General Relativity as it is currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today. Einstein took the wrong side in a few scientific debates.
- He briefly flirted with transverse and longitudinal mass concepts, before rejecting them.
- Einstein initially opposed Minkowski's geometrical formulation of special relativity, changing his mind completely a few years later.
- Based on his cosmological model, Einstein rejected expanding universe solutions by Lemaitreas unphysical, changing his mind when the universe was shown to be expanding a few years later.
- Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's wave-particle dualitywas equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.
- Einstein rejected work on black holes by Oppenheimer, and others, believing, along with Eddington, that collapse past the horizon (then called the 'Schwartschild singularity') would never happen. So big was his influence, that this opinion was not rejected until the early 1960s, almost a decade after his death.
- Einstein believed that some sort of nonlinear instability could lead to a field theory whose solutions would collapse into pointlike objects which would behave like quantum particles. While there are many field theories with point-like particle solutions, none of them behave like quantum particles. It is widely believed that quantum mechanics would be impossible to reproduce from a local field theory of the type Einstein considered, because of Bell's inequality.
In addition to these well known mistakes, it is sometimes claimed that the general line of Einstein's reasoning in the 1905 relativity paper is flawed, or the photon paper, or one or another of the most famous papers. None of these claims are widely accepted.
Collaboration with other scientists
In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one shot collaborations with various scientists.
Einstein-de Haas experiment
Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a
Schrödinger gas model
Einstein suggested to
This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics.Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.[63]
Einstein refrigerator
In 1926, Einstein and his former student
Bohr versus Einstein
In the 1920s,
Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in collaboration with
Religious views
The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. In 1929, Einstein told Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein "I believe in Spinoza's God, who reveals Himself in the lawful harmony of the world, not in a God Who concerns Himself with the fate and the doings of mankind."[69] In a 1950 letter to M. Berkowitz, Einstein stated that "My position concerning God is that of an agnostic. I am convinced that a vivid consciousness of the primary importance of moral principles for the betterment and ennoblement of life does not need the idea of a law-giver, especially a law-giver who works on the basis of reward and punishment."[70] Einstein also stated: "I have repeatedly said that in my opinion the idea of a personal God is a childlike one. You may call me an agnostic, but I do not share the crusading spirit of the professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth." He is reported to have said in a conversation with Hubertus, Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Freudenberg, "In view of such harmony in the cosmos which I, with my limited human mind, am able to recognize, there are yet people who say there is no God. But what really makes me angry is that they quote me for the support of such views."[71] Einstein clarified his religious views in a letter he wrote in response to those who claimed that he worshipped a Judeo-Christian god: "It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal god and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly. If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it."[72] In his book The World as I See It, he wrote: "A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, of the manifestations of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which are only accessible to our reason in their most elementary forms—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute the truly religious attitude; in this sense, and in this alone, I am a deeply religious man."[73]
Politics
With increasing public demands, his involvement in political, humanitarian, and academic projects in various countries, and his new acquaintances with scholars and political figures from around the world, Einstein was less able to achieve the productive isolation that he needed in order to work.[74] Due to his fame and genius, Einstein found himself called on to give conclusive judgments on matters that had nothing to do with theoretical physics or mathematics. He was not timid, and he was aware of the world around him, with no illusion that ignoring politics would make world events fade away. His very visible position allowed him to speak and write frankly, even provocatively, at a time when many people of conscience could only flee to the underground or keep doubts about developments within their own movements to themselves for fear of internecine fighting. Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement, tried to be a voice of moderation in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel and braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the United States. He participated in the 1927 congress of the League against Imperialism in Brussels.[75]
Zionism
Einstein was a
Einstein publicly stated reservations about the proposal to partition the British-supervised British Mandate of Palestine into independent Arab and Jewish countries. In a 1938 speech, "Our Debt to Zionism", he said: "My awareness of the essential nature of Judaism resists the idea of a Jewish state with borders, an army, and a measure of temporal power, no matter how modest. I am afraid of the inner damage Judaism will sustain—especially from the development of a narrow nationalism within our own ranks, against which we have already had to fight strongly, even without a Jewish state. ... If external necessity should after all compel us to assume this burden, let us bear it with tact and patience."[81] In a 1947 letter to Indian Prime Minister
The
Einstein served on the Board of Governors of
When President Chaim Weizmann died in 1952, Einstein was asked to be Israel's second president, but he declined, stating that he had "neither the natural ability nor the experience to deal with human beings."[84] He wrote: "I am deeply moved by the offer from our State of Israel, and at once saddened and ashamed that I cannot accept it."[85]
Anti-Nazism
Einstein had moved to the United States in December 1932, where he had been at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California,[86] and also was a guest lecturer at Abraham Flexner's newly founded Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.[87]
During the 1930s and into World War II, Einstein wrote
In Germany,
Atomic bomb
Concerned scientists, many of them refugees from European anti-Semitism in the U.S., recognized the danger of German scientists developing an
By 1942 this effort had become the
According to
Cold War era
When he was a visible figure working against the rise of Nazism, Einstein had sought help and developed working relationships in both the West and what was to become the
Einstein was a member of several
In 1946, Einstein collaborated with Rabbi Israel Goldstein, Middlesex University heir C. Ruggles Smith, and activist attorney George Alpert on the Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, which was formed to create a Jewish-sponsored secular university, open to all students, on the grounds of the former Middlesex University in Waltham, Massachusetts. Middlesex was chosen in part because it was accessible from both Boston and New York City, Jewish cultural centers of the U.S. Their vision was a university "deeply conscious both of the Hebraic tradition of Torah looking upon culture as a birthright, and of the American ideal of an educated democracy."[103] The collaboration was stormy, however. Finally, when Einstein wanted to appoint British economist Harold Laski as the university's president, George Alpert wrote that Laski was "a man utterly alien to American principles of democracy, tarred with the Communist brush."[103] Einstein withdrew his support and barred the use of his name.[104] The university opened in 1948 as Brandeis University. In 1953, Brandeis offered Einstein an honorary degree, but he declined.[103]
Given Einstein's links to Germany and Zionism, his socialist ideals, and his links to Communist figures, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation kept a file on Einstein[105] that grew to 1,427 pages. Many of the documents in the file were sent to the FBI by concerned citizens: some objected to his immigration, while others asked the FBI to protect him.[106]
Death
On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[107] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[108] Einstein refused surgery, saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[109] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey.[110][111] During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital,
Legacy
While travelling, Einstein had written daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters, Margot and Ilse, and the letters were included in the papers bequeathed to
The United States'
Einstein bequeathed the
Effect on popular culture
In the period before World War II, Albert Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory." He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[118]
Albert Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, and plays. Einstein is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's dream come true."[119]
Einstein's association with great intelligence has made the name Einstein synonymous with genius, often used in ironic expressions such as "Nice job, Einstein!".
Awards
right|thumb|Max Planck presents Albert Einstein with the Max-Planck medal of the German Physical Society, June 28, 1929 in Berlin. In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[120] "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously examined at the present time." (Einstein 1923)
It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money directly to his first wife, Mileva Marić, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal correspondence made public in 2006[121] shows that he invested much of it in the United States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.
Einstein traveled to New York City in the United States for the first time on 2 April, 1921. When asked where he got his scientific ideas, Einstein explained that he believed scientific work best proceeds from an examination of physical reality and a search for underlying axioms, with consistent explanations that apply in all instances and avoid contradicting each other. He also recommended theories with visualizable results (Einstein 1954).[122]
In 1999, Albert Einstein was named
Honors
Albert Einstein has been recognized many times over for his achievements. The
The Albert Einstein Memorial in central
The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months after Einstein's death.[127][128]
2001 Einstein is an inner
The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in
The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is an award that is given yearly by the
In 1990, his name was added to the
See also
- Heinrich Burkhardt
- Hermann Einstein
- History of gravitational theory
- Introduction to special relativity
- List of coupled cousins
- Relativity priority dispute
- Sticky bead argument
- Summation convention
- The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)
- German inventors and discoverers
- Wikipedia Books: Albert Einstein
- Historical Museum of Bern(Einstein museum)
Publications
- The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein.
- Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen (Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik, vol. 4, p. 513,
- Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" (PDF), Annalen der Physik, 17: 132–148, . This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik 18 March.
- Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD thesis was completed 30 April and submitted 20 July.
- Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik, 17: 549–560, . This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received 11 May.
- Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik, 17: 891–921, . This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received 30 June.
- Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik, 18: 639–641, S2CID 122309633. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received 27 September.
- Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field Equations of Gravitation)", Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften: 844–847
- Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of Relativity)", Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
- Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 18: 121–128
- Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory of Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921 (PDF), Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, retrieved 2007-03-25
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- Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases (Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch—Mathematische Klasse: 261–267. First of a series of papers on this topic.
- Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften, 14 (11): 223–224, Baer's law and meandersin the courses of rivers.
- Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical Review, 47 (10): 777–780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777)
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- Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature, 146 (3706): 605, S2CID 9421843
- Einstein, Albert; et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors", New York Times
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- Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review, retrieved 2006-01-16
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- Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific American, CLXXXII (4): 13–17,
- Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
- Einstein, Albert (1969), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born: Briefwechsel 1916–1955 (in German), Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung
- Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, translated by Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-6. The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
- Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R. Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald (Eds.); et al. (1987–2006). The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol 1–10. Princeton University Press.
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Notes
- ^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000). "Various things about Albert Einstein". einstein-website.de. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
- ISBN 978-0691120942.
By heritage I am a Jew, by nationality Swiss, by conviction a human being and only a human being with no particular penchant for a state or national entity.
- ISBN 978-0827608245.
- ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921". Nobel Foundation. Archived from the original on 2008-10-05. Retrieved 2007-03-06.
- ^ a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951). Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Volume II. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook edition). pp. 730–746.
{{cite book}}:|author=has generic name (help) His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld). - ^ a b c d e f g "Albert Einstein — Biography". Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 2007-03-07.
- ^ Howard, Don, and Stachel, John J. Einstein: The Formative Years, 1879-1909, p. 159, Springer (2000)
- ^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979). Albert Einstein — Autobiographical Notes. Open Court Publishing Company. pp. 8–9.
- ISBN 3-03823-182-7.
- ISBN 0-465-08140-1.
- ^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student," Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web: HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.
- ^ (Einstein 1979)
- ^ Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper", The Golden Age of Physics (PDF), World Scientific, retrieved 2007-03-04
- )
- ^ Highfield (1993, pp. 21, 31, 56–57)
- ^ Letter Einstein to Marić on 3 October 1900 (Collected Papers Vol. 1, document 79).
- ^ "A Brief Biography of Albert Einstein". April 2005. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Alberto A Martínez (April 2004). "Arguing about Einstein's wife". Physics World. Retrieved 21 November 2005.
- ^ Allen Esterson. "Mileva Marić: Einstein's Wife". Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ John Stachel. ""Albert Einstein and Mileva Maric. A Collaboration That Failed to Develop" in: Creative Couples in the Sciences, H. M. Pycior et al. (ed)" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-23.
- ^ This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying with her family in or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected papers Vol. 1, document 134).
- ISBN 0140237194; see section I, II,
- ^ Highfield 1993, p. 216
- ^ Now the "Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property". Retrieved 16 October 2006.. See also their "FAQ about Einstein and the Institute".
- ^ Peter Galison, "Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time" Critical Inquiry 26, no. 2 (Winter 2000): 355–389.
- ^ Gallison, Question of Time.
- ISBN 0393020010.
- ^ a b "Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz." Instituut-Lorentz. 2005. Retrieved on 21 November 2005.
- ^ This did not become possible until the development of alpha particle scintillation detectors early in the twentieth century. Rutherford invited Mach to take a look at the scintillation screen in a dark room, where the impact of individual alpha particles (Helium nuclei) are directly visible to the dark adapted eye.
- ^ (Einstein 1905b)
- ^ an account may be found here
- Faraday's constant. Dividing by the charge of a single electron, measured by Millikan, gives Avogadro's number.
- ^ (Einstein 1905d)
- ISBN 0-55-380202-X
- ISBN 0-39-450588-3
- ^ (Einstein 1905e)
- ISBN 9027724989.
- ISBN 0-19-520438-7
- . Retrieved 2009-06-27.
- ^ (Einstein 1905a).
- ISBN 0-19-520438-7
- Public Broadcasting Service. 2005. Retrieved on 25 February 2006.
- ^ Einstein, A. "Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen (On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It)". Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität (Yearbook of Radioactivity). 4: 411–462. page 454 (Wir betrachen zwei Bewegung systeme ...)
- . (also in Collected Papers Vol. 3, document 23)
- ^ ISBN 9780691123103
- ^ (Einstein 1915)
- ^ "Two friends in Leiden". Retrieved 2007-06-11.
- ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3, retrieved 2007-03-13
- ISBN 978-0-691-12310-3, retrieved 2007-03-13
- ^ PMC 1315907.
- ^ "The genius of space and time". The Guardian. 2005-09-17. Retrieved 2007-03-31.
- ^ Schmidhuber, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and the 'Greatest Scientific Discovery Ever'." 2006. Retrieved on 4 October 2006.
- ^ See the table in MathPages Bending Light
- ISBN 3-76-435312-0
- ^ For a discussion of astronomers' attitudes and debates about relativity, see Crelinsten, Jeffrey (2006), Einstein's Jury: The Race to Test Relativity, Princeton University Press, especially chapters 6, 9, 10 and 11.
- ^ (Einstein 1917a)
- Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physicsin Berlin." in Renn, Jürgen. "Albert Einstein — Chief Engineer of the Universe: One Hundred Authors for Einstein." Ed. Renn, Jürgen. Wiley-VCH. 2005. pp. 166–169. ISBN = 3527405747
- ^ (Einstein 1917b)
- ^ (Einstein 1924)
- ^ "Cornell and Wieman Share 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics". 2001-10-09. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
- ^ (Einstein 1950)
- ^ [1]
- ISBN 0-521-43767-9.
- Leó Szilárd, a Hungarian physicist who later worked on the Manhattan Project, is credited with the discovery of the chain reaction
- Oxford University was heading a three-year project to develop more robust appliances that could be used in locales lacking electricity, and that his team had completed a prototype Einstein refrigerator. He was quoted as saying that improving the design and changing the types of gases used might allow the design's efficiency to be quadrupled.Alok, Jha (21 September 2008). "Einstein fridge design can help global cooling". The Guardian.
- ISBN 388682005X
- ^ (Einstein 1935)
- doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.49.1804.) The first of many experimental tests relating to EPR.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ISBN 0-471-11459-6
- ^ Albert Einstein in a letter to M. Berkowitz, 25 October 1950; Einstein Archive 59–215; from Alice Calaprice, ed., The New Quotable Einstein, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2000, p. 216.
- ^ "Albert Einstein (1879–1955)". Retrieved 2007-05-21.
- ^ Helen Dukas and Banesh Hoffman (eds) (1981). Albert Einstein, The Human Side. Princeton University Press. p. 43.
{{cite book}}:|author=has generic name (help); External link in|title= - ISBN 0806527900. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
- ISBN 0-380-44123-3
- ^ "Nationalist-Communist Civil War 1927–1937". Retrieved 2007-10-03.
- ^ Zionism and Israel Information Center, Albert Einstein and Zionism, retrieved 2008-08-14
{{citation}}: Unknown parameter|source=ignored (help) - ^ ASIN: B00085M906
- ISBN 1599869659.
- ^ American Museum of Natural History (2002), Einstein's Revolution, retrieved 2007-03-14
- ^ See the AMNH site's popup of translated letter from Freud, in the section "Freud and Einstein", regarding proposed joint presentation on "What can be done to rid mankind of the menace of war?"
- )
- ^ Jewish Virtual Library, Albert Einstein on Zionism, retrieved 2008-08-14
{{citation}}: Unknown parameter|source=ignored (help) - ^ Albert Einstein Archives (2007), "History of the Estate of Albert Einstein", Albert Einstein Archives, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, retrieved 2007-03-25
- ^ "Einstein Declines". TIME Online. 1952. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
- ^ a b Princeton Online (1995), "Einstein in Princeton: Scientist, Humanitarian, Cultural Icon", Historical Society of Princeton, retrieved 2007-03-14
{{citation}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - ^ Clark, R. "Einstein: The Life and Times" Harper-Collins, 1984. 880 pp.
- ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
- ^ "An Albert Einstein Chronology". American Institute of Physics. Retrieved 2007-08-06.
- ^ The International Rescue Committee gives support and shelter to refugees of social and political persecution.
- ^ "MathPages — Reflections on Relativity: Who Invented Relativity?". Retrieved 2007-06-25.
- ^ Christian Schlatter (April 2002). "Philipp Lenard et la physique aryenne" (PDF). École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ISBN 0-55-338016-8
- ^ Discover Magazine March 2008. "Chain Reaction: From Einstein to the Atomic Bomb".
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ ISBN 0-671-44133-7.
- ^ The Atomic Heritage Foundation. "Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt". Retrieved 2007-05-26.
- ^ Schwarz, Frederic (1998–04). "Einstein's Ordnance". AmericanHeritage.com. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)[unreliable source?] - ^ Scientist Tells of Einstein's A-bomb Regrets. The Philadelphia Bulletin, 13 May 1955. (PDF document from the Swiss Federal Archives from Internet Archive.)
- ^ Einstein, Albert (1947). "Atomic War or Peace". Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ) Other versions of the quote exist.
- ^ "Why Socialism?". Retrieved 2007-06-30.
- ^ Butcher, Sandra Ionno (May 2005). "The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto" (PDF). Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs. Retrieved 2007-05-02.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ Ken Gewertz (2007-04-12). "Albert Einstein, Civil Rights activist". Harvard University Gazette. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
- ^ a b c Reis, Arthur H., Jr (1998), "The Albert Einstein Involvement" (PDF), Brandeis Review, 50th Anniversary Edition, retrieved 2007-03-25
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ New York Times (22 June 1947), "Dr. Einstein Quits University Plan", The New York Times, retrieved 2007-03-14
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - ^ "The FBI and Albert Einstein".[unreliable source?]
- ^ Federal Bureau of Investigation (2005), "Albert Einstein", FBI Freedom of Information Act Website, U.S. Federal Government, U.S. Department of Justice, retrieved 2005-11-21
- ^ "The Case of the Scientist with a Pulsating Mass". 2002-06-14. Retrieved 2007-06-11.
- ^ Albert Einstein Archives (April 1955), "Draft of projected Telecast Israel Independence Day, April 1955 (last statement ever written)", Einstein Archives Online, retrieved 2007-03-14
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) - PMID 2183375.
- ^ O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (1997), "Albert Einstein", The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, retrieved 2007-03-14
- ^ "Dr. Albert Einstein Dies in Sleep at 76. World Mourns Loss of Great Scientist". New York Times. 19 April 1955, Tuesday.
Princeton, New Jersey, 18 April 1955. Dr. Albert Einstein, one of the great thinkers of the ages, died in his sleep here early today.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "The Long, Strange Journey of Einstein's Brain". NPR. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
- ISBN 038533303X
- ^ New York Times obituary
- ^ BBC (2006), "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life", BBC News, BBC, retrieved 2007-03-14
- ^ Roger Richman Agency (2007), "Albert Einstein Licensing", retrieved 2007-03-25
{{citation}}: Missing or empty|title=(help); Archive index at the Wayback Machine - ^ "Einstein". Corbis Rights Representation. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
- ^ The New Yorker April 1939 pg 69 Disguise
- ^ a b Golden, Frederic (3 January 2000), "Person of the Century: Albert Einstein", Time, retrieved 2006-02-25
- ^ "Albert Einstein - Frequently Asked Questions". Nobelprize.org. 1955-04-18. Retrieved 2009-01-07.
- ^ BBC (2006), "Letters Reveal Einstein Love Life", BBC News, BBC, retrieved 2008-11-25
- ^ See Albert Einstein, "Geometry and Experience," (1921), reprinted in Ideas and Opinions.
- ^ Isaacson, Walter (3 January 2000), "Person of the Century: Why We Chose Einstein", Time, retrieved 2007-07-16
- ^ "Mother Teresa Voted by American People as Most Admired Person of the Century". 1999-12-31. Retrieved 2008-08-13.
- ISBN 0-8065-1350-0
- ^ "World Year of Physics 2005". Retrieved 2007-10-03.
- ^ "Einsteinium and Fermium". Retrieved 2009-06-06.
- ^ "History of the International Atomic Energy Agency - The First Forty Years" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 30. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
- Bibcode:1990JRASC..84..123S.)
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link - ^ Biography of J. Schwinger from University of St Andrews, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive (Last accessed December 17, 2006).
- ^ a b The Month at Caltech, April 1954 issue, p. 20 (Last accessed on September 4, 2007).
- ISSN 0196-0180.
- ISSN 0519-2366.
- ISBN 3834801739.)
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link - ^ Report of the Director for 1948–53, Institute for Advanced Studies, p. 30 (1954). (pdf file last accessed on September 6, 2007).
- ^ "Walhalla Ruhmes- und Ehrenhalle" (in German). Retrieved 2007-10-03.
Further reading
- Moring, Gary, "The complete idiot’s guide to understanding Einstein", Indianapolis, IN : Alpha books : Macmillan USA, Inc., 2000 (2nd edition, 2004). ISBN 0028631803
- Schweber, S. S., Einstein and ISBN 978-0674028289.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
- Abdel Rahman Samir/Albert Einstein at Find a Grave Retrieved on 2009-06-12
- Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
- "The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive". School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. April 1997. Retrieved 2009-06-14.
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