Romani people
Total population | |
---|---|
2–12 million[1][2][3][4] | |
United States | 1,000,000 estimated with Romani ancestry[a][5][6] |
Brazil | 800,000 (0.4%)[7] |
Spain | 750,000–1,500,000 (1.9–3.7%)[8][9][10][11][12] |
Romania | 569,500–1,850,000 (3.4–8.32%)[13][14] |
Turkey | 500,000–2,750,000 (3.8%)[9][15][16][17] |
Bulgaria | 325,343[b]–750,000 (4.9–10.3%)[19][20] |
Hungary | 309,632[c]–870,000 (3.21–8.8%)[21][22] |
France | 300,000–1,200,000 (0.21%)[23][24][25][26] |
Argentina | 300,000[d][27][28] |
United Kingdom | 225,000 (0.4%)[29][9][30] |
Russia | 205,007[e]–825,000 (0.6%)[9] |
Serbia | 147,604[f]–600,000 (2.1–8.2%)[31][32][9] |
Italy | 120,000–180,000 (0.3%)[33][9] |
Greece | 111,000–300,000 (2.7%)[34][35] |
Germany | 105,000 (0.1%)[9][36] |
Slovakia | 105,738[g]–490,000 (2.1–9.0%)[37][38][39] |
Albania | 100,000-140,000 (3.62%-5.06%)[40] |
Iran | 2,000–110,000[41][42] |
North Macedonia | 46,433 (2.53%)[43] |
Sweden | 50,000–100,000[9][44] |
Ukraine | 47,587[h]–260,000 (0.6%)[9][45] |
Portugal | 52,000 (0.5%)[9][46][47] |
Austria | 40,000–50,000 (0.6%)[48] |
Kosovo | 36,000[i] (2%)[9][49] |
Netherlands | 32,000–40,000 (0.2%)[9] |
Poland | 17,049[e]–32,500 (0.1%)[9][50] |
Croatia | 16,975[e]–35,000 (0.8%)[9][51] |
Mexico | 15,850[52] |
Chile | 15,000–20,000[27] |
Moldova | 12,778[e]–107,100 (3.0%)[9][53] |
Finland | 10,000–12,000 est. (0.2%)[54] |
Bosnia and Herzegovina | 8,864[e]–58,000 (1.5%)[9][55] |
Colombia | 2,649–8,000[27][56] |
Belarus | 7,316[e]–47,500 (0.5%)[57] |
Latvia | 7,193[e]–12,500 (0.6%)[9] |
Canada | 5,255–80,000[58][59] |
Montenegro | 5,251[e]–20,000 (3.7%)[60] |
Czech Republic | 5,199[j]–40,370[e] (Romani speakers)–250,000 (1.9%)[61][62] |
Australia | 5,000–25,000[63] |
Slovenia | 3,246[9] |
Lithuania | 2,571[9] |
Denmark | 5,500[64] |
Ireland | 22,435[9] |
Georgia | 1,200[9] |
Belgium | 30,000[65] |
Cyprus | 1,250[66] |
Switzerland | 25,000–35,000[9] |
Languages | |
Romani, Para-Romani varieties, languages of native regions | |
Religion | |
Predominantly Christianity[67] Islam[67] Shaktism tradition of Hinduism[67] Romani mythology Buddhism (minority)[68][69] Judaism (conversion through marriage to Jewish spouses)[70] | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Ghorbati, Doms, Lom, Ḍoma, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians; other Indo-Aryans |
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Romani people |
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Romani diaspora by country
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The Romani, also spelled Romany or Rromani (
In the English language, Romani people have long been known by the
Since the 19th century, some Romani have also migrated to the Americas. There are an estimated 1 million Roma in the United States[6] and between 800,000 and 1 million in Brazil, most of whose ancestors emigrated in the 19th century from eastern Europe. Brazilian Romani are mostly descendant from German/Italian Sinti (in the South/Southeast regions), and Roma and Calon people. Brazil also includes a notable Romani community descended from Sinti and Roma deportees from the Portuguese Empire during the Portuguese Inquisition.[90] In migrations since the late 19th century, Romani have also moved to other countries in South America and Canada. Though often confused with Irish Travellers and the Yenish people in western Europe, the Romani are culturally different.[91][92][93]
The Romani language is an Indo-Aryan language with strong Balkan and Greek influence.[94] It is divided into several dialects, which together are estimated to have more than two million speakers.[95] Because the language has traditionally been oral, many Romani are native speakers of the dominant language in their country of residence, or else of mixed languages combining the dominant language with a dialect of Romani in varieties sometimes called para-Romani.[96]
Population and subgroups
Romani populations
There is no official or reliable count of the Romani populations worldwide.[97] Many Romani refuse to register their ethnic identity in official censuses for a variety of reasons, such as fear of discrimination.[98][99] Others are descendants of intermarriage with local populations, some who no longer identify only as Romani and some who do not identify as Romani at all. Then, too, some countries do not collect data by ethnicity.
Despite these challenges to getting an accurate picture of the Romani dispersal, there were an estimated 10 million in Europe (as of 2019),[100] although some Romani organizations have given earlier estimates as high as 14 million.[101][102] Significant Romani populations are found in the Balkans, in some central European states, in Spain, France, Russia and Ukraine. In the European Union, there are an estimated 6 million Romanis.[103]
Outside Europe there may be several million more Romani, in particular in the Middle East and the Americas.[104][105]
Romani subgroups
The Romani identify as distinct ethnicities based in part on territorial, cultural and dialectal differences, and self-designation.[106][107][108][109]
Like the Roma in general, many different
Subgroups have been described as, in part, a result of the castes and subcastes in India, which the founding population of Rom almost certainly experienced in their south Asian
Many groups use names apparently derived from the Romani word kalo or calo, meaning "black" or "absorbing all light". This closely resembles words for "black" or "dark" in
Other endonyms for Romani include, for example:
- Arlije (also Erlides, Yerli, meaning "local", from the Turkish word Yerli) in the Balkans and Turkey to describe sedentary Muslim Roma.
- Bashaldé – Hungarian-Slovak Roma diaspora in the US from the late 19th century.[114]
- Bergitka Roma (also Carpathian Roma), Poland, mainly Goral lands.
- Çerge also Čergarja (nomad), Nomadic Lifestyle Muslim Roma in the Balkans and Turkey.
- Calé, the endonym used by both the Spanish Roma (gitanos) and Portuguese Roma (ciganos).[115] Caló is the language spoken by the Calé.
- Dasikane or Daskane, meaning "slaves" or "servants"; a religionym and confessionym for Orthodox Christian Roma in the Balkans.[110]
- Garachi Shia Islam followers Roma people in Azerbaijan
- Gurbeti Muslim Roma in Northern Cyprus, Turkey and Balkans.
- Horahane or Xoraxai, also known as "Turkish Roma" or "Muslim Roma", a religionym and confessionym in the Balkans for Muslim Romani.[110]
- Kaale, in Finland and Sweden.[115][110]
- Kale, Kalá, or Valshanange – a Welsh English endonym used by some Roma clans in Wales.[k] (Romanichal also live in Wales.) Romani in Spain are also attributed to the Kale.[12]
- Lalleri, from Austria, Germany, and the western Czech Republic (including the former Sudetenland).[116][117][118][119]
- Lovari, chiefly in Central Europe, speaking a dialect of Romani influenced by Hungarian;[120] known in Serbia as Machvaya, Machavaya, Machwaya or Macwaia.[110]
- Lyuli, in Central Asian countries.
- Polska Roma, largest Romani subgroup in Poland.
- Rom in Italy.
- Roma in Romania, commonly known by ethnic Romanians as țigani, including many subgroups defined by occupation:
- Argintari "silversmiths."[121]
- Aurari "goldsmiths."[121]
- Churari[126] (from Romanian ciurari "sieve-makers")
- Colari "carpet dealers"[127]
- Florari "flower-sellers."[121]
- Kalderash, from Romanian căldărar, literally "bucket-maker", meaning "kettle-maker", "tinsmith", "tinker"; also in Poland, Moldova and Ukraine.[121]
- Lăutari "musicians" (lăută = lute).[121]
- Ungaritza (blacksmiths, bladesmiths).
- Ursari ""dancing bears" trainers" (from Romanian urs "bear").[110]
- Zlătari "goldsmiths."[110]
- Argintari "
- Romaor Romové, Czech Republic.
- Roma or Rómovia, Slovakia.[128]
- United States, Canada and Australia.[129]
- Romanisæl, in Norway and Sweden.
- Romanlar, Turkish-speaking Muslim Roma in Turkey, also called Çingene or Şopar, with all subgroups, who are named after their professions, like:
- Cambazı (acrobatics and horse trading)
- Sünnetçi (circumciser)
- Kuyumcu (goldsmith)
- Subaşı (soldier or butler)
- Çiçekçi (flower-seller)
- Sepetçi (basket-maker)
- Ayıcı (bear-leader)
- Kalaycı (tinsmith)
- Müzisyen (musician)
- Şarkıcı (singer)
- Demirci (blacksmith) etc., but the majority of Turkish Roma work as day laborers too.[110]
- Roms or Manouche (from manush, "people" in Romani) in France.[110][130]
- Romungro or Carpathian Romani from eastern Hungary and neighbouring parts of the Carpathians.[131]
- Sepečides, meaning "basket-maker"; Muslim Roma in West Thrace, Greece.
- Sinti or Zinti, predominantly in Germany,[115][110][132] and northern Italy; Sinti do not refer to themselves as Roma, although their language is called Romanes.[110]
- Zargari people, Shia Muslim Roma in Iran, who once came from Rumelia/Southern Bulgaria from the Maritsa Valley in Ottoman times and settled in Persia.
Diaspora
The Roma people have a number of distinct populations, the largest being the Roma, who reached Anatolia and the Balkans about the early 12th century from a migration out of northwestern India beginning about 600 years earlier.[133][134] They settled in the areas that are now Turkey, Greece, Serbia, Romania, Moldova, Albania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Hungary, Slovakia and Spain, by order of volume.
From the Balkans, they migrated throughout Europe and Iberian Calé or Caló, and, in the 19th and later centuries, to the Americas. The Romani population in the United States is estimated at more than one million.[l]
In Brazil, the Romani are mainly called ciganos by non-Romani Brazilians. Most of them belong to the ethnic subgroup Calés (Kale) of the Iberian peninsula. Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazil's president from 1956 to 1961, was 50% Czech Romani by his mother's bloodline, and Washington Luís, the last president of the First Brazilian Republic (1926–1930), had Portuguese Kale ancestry.[135]
Persecution against the Romani has led to many of the cultural practices being extinguished, hidden or modified to survive in a country that has excluded them ethnically and culturally. The very common carnivals throughout Brazil are one of the few spaces in which the Romani can still express their cultural traditions, including the so-called "carnival wedding" in which a boy is disguised as a bride and the famous "Romaní dance", picturesquely simulated with the women of the town parading in their traditional attire.[136]
Origin
Genetic findings suggest an Indian origin for Roma.[133][134][137] Because Romani groups did not keep chronicles of their history or have oral accounts of it, most hypotheses about early Romani migration are based on linguistic theory.[138] There is also no known record of Romani migration from India to Europe from medieval times that can be connected indisputably to Roma.[139]
Shahnameh legend
According to a legend reported in the
Linguistic evidence
Linguistic evidence has indisputably shown that the roots of the Romani language lie in India: the language has grammatical characteristics of Indian languages and shares with them a large part of the basic lexicon.[141]
Romani and
In phonology, the Romani language shares several isoglosses with the Central branch of Indo-Aryan languages, especially in the realization of some sounds of the Old Indo-Aryan. However, it also preserves several dental clusters. In regards to verb morphology, Romani follows exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers, lending credence to the theory of their Central Indian origin and a subsequent migration to northwestern India. Though the retention of dental clusters suggests a break from central languages during the transition from Old to Middle Indo-Aryan, the overall morphology suggests that the language participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages.[145] The following table presents the
Languages Numbers
|
Romani | Domari | Lomavren | Sanskrit | Hindi | Odia | Sinhala |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | ekh, jekh | yika | yak, yek | éka | ek | ekô | eka |
2 | duj | dī | lui | dvá | do | dui | deka |
3 | trin | tærən | tərin | trí | tīn | tiṇi | thuna/thri |
4 | štar | štar | išdör | catvā́raḥ | cār | cari | hathara/sathara |
5 | pandž | pandž | pendž | páñca | pā̃c | pañcô | paha |
6 | šov | šaš | šeš | ṣáṭ | chah | chôô | haya/saya |
7 | ifta | xaut | haft | saptá | sāt | satô | hata/satha |
8 | oxto | xaišt | hašt | aṣṭá | āṭh | aṭhô | ata |
9 | inja | na | nu | náva | nau | nôô | nawaya |
10 | deš | des | las | dáśa | das | dôsô | dahaya |
20 | biš | wīs | vist | viṃśatí | bīs | bisô | wissa |
100 | šel | saj | saj | śatá | sau | sôhô | siiya/shathakaya |
Genetic evidence
Genetic findings in 2012 suggest the Romani originated in northwestern India and migrated as a group.[133][134][147] According to the study, the ancestors of present scheduled caste and scheduled tribe populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.[148]
In December 2012, additional findings appeared to confirm that the "Roma came from a single group that left northwestern India about 1,500 years ago".[134][149][150][151] They reached the Balkans about 900 years ago[133] and then spread throughout Europe. The team also found that the Roma displayed genetic isolation, as well as "differential gene flow in time and space with non-Romani Europeans".[133][134]
Genetic research published in the European Journal of Human Genetics "has revealed that over 70% of males belong to a single lineage that appears unique to the Roma".[152]
Genetic evidence supports the
A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group".[154] The same study found that "a single lineage... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males".[154] A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romani population "was founded approximately 32–40 generations ago, with secondary and tertiary founder events occurring approximately 16–25 generations ago".[155]
Haplogroup H-M82 is a major lineage cluster in the Balkan Romani group, accounting for approximately 60% of the total.[156] Haplogroup H is uncommon in Europe but present in the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka.
A study of 444 people representing three ethnic groups in North Macedonia found mtDNA haplogroups M5a1 and H7a1a were dominant in Romanies (13.7% and 10.3%, respectively).[157]
Y-DNA composition of Muslim Romani from Šuto Orizari Municipality in North Macedonia, based on 57 samples:[156]
- Haplogroup H – 59.6%
- Haplogroup E– 29.8%
- Haplogroup I– 5.3%
- R1a
- Haplogroup G– 1.8%
Y-DNA Haplogroup H1a occurs in Romani at frequencies 7–70%. Unlike ethnic Hungarians, among Hungarian and Slovakian Romani subpopulations
Five rather consistent founder lineages throughout the subpopulations were found among Romani – J-M67 and J-M92 (J2), H-M52 (H1a1), and I-P259 (I1). Haplogroup I-P259 as H is not found at frequencies of over 3% among host populations, while haplogroups E and I are absent in south Asia. The lineages E-V13, I-P37 (I2a) and R-M17 (R1a) may represent gene flow from the host populations. Bulgarian, Romanian and Greek Romani are dominated by Haplogroup H-M82 (H1a1), while among Spanish Romani J2 is prevalent.[159] In Serbia among Kosovo and Belgrade Romani Haplogroup H prevails, while among Vojvodina Romani, H drops to 7 percent and E-V13 rises to a prevailing level.[160]
Among non-Roma Europeans, Haplogroup H is extremely rare, peaking at 7% among
The Ottoman occupation of the Balkans also left a significant genetic mark on the Y-DNA of the Romani there, creating a higher frequency of Haplogroups J and E3b in Roma populations from the region.[167]
Full genome analysis
A full genome autosomal DNA study on 186 Roma samples from Europe in 2019 found that modern Roma people are characterized by a common south Asian origin and a complex admixture from Balkan, Middle East, and Caucasus-derived ancestries. The autosomal genetic data links the proto-Roma to groups in northwest India (specifically Punjabi and Gujarati samples), as well as, Dravidian-speaking groups in southeastern India (specifically Irula). The paternal lineages of Roma are most common in southern and central India among Dravidian-speaking populations. The authors argue that this may point to a founder effect among the early Romani during their ethnogenesis or shortly after they migrated out of the Indian subcontinent. In addition, they theorized of a possible low-caste (Dalit) origin for the Proto-Roma, since they were genetically closer to the Punjabi cluster that lacks a common marker characteristic of high castes, which is West Euroasian admixing.[168]
Possible migration route
The Romani may have emerged from what is the modern Indian state of
In February 2016, during the International Roma Conference, then Indian Minister of External Affairs, Sushma Swaraj stated that the people of the Roma community were children of India.[171] The conference ended with a recommendation to the government of India to recognize the Roma community spread across 30 countries as a part of the Indian diaspora.[172]
Names
Endonyms
Rom means husband in the
Romani usage
In the Romani language, Rom is a masculine noun, meaning 'husband of the Roma ethnic group', with the plural Roma. The feminine of Rom in the Romani language is Romni/Romli/Romnije or Romlije. However, in most cases, in other languages Rom is now used for individuals regardless of gender.[176]
Romani is the feminine adjective, while Romano is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use Rom or Roma as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group.[177]
Sometimes, rom and romani are spelled with a double r, i.e., rrom and rromani. In this case rr is used to represent the
In Norway, Romani is used exclusively for an older Northern Romani-speaking population (which arrived in the 16th century) while Rom/Romanes is used to describe Vlax Romani-speaking groups which have arrived since the 19th century.[179]
English usage
In the English language (according to the Oxford English Dictionary), Rom is a noun (with the plural Roma or Roms) and an adjective, while Romani (Romany) is also a noun (with the plural Romani, the Romani, Romanies, or Romanis) and an adjective. Both Rom and Romani have been in use in English since the 19th century as an alternative for Gypsy.[180] Romani was sometimes spelled Rommany, but more often Romany, while today Romani is the most popular spelling. Occasionally, the double r spelling (e.g., Rroma, Rromani) mentioned above is also encountered in English texts.
The term Roma is increasingly encountered[181][182] as a generic term for the Romani.[183][184][185]
Because not all Romani use the word Romani as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group.[186] Today, the term Romani is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress.[178] However, the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that Roma is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that Romani be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture.[176] The United Kingdom government uses the term "Roma" as a sub-group of "White" in its ethnic classification system.[187]
The standard assumption is that the demonyms of the Romani, Lom and Dom, share the same origin.[188][189]
Other designations
The English term Gypsy (or Gipsy) originates from the
This
Another designation of the Romani is Cingane (alt. Çingene, Tsinganoi, Zigar, Zigeuner, Tschingaren), likely deriving from the Persian word چنگانه (chingane), derived from the Turkic word çıgañ, meaning poor person.[199] It is also possible that the origin of this word is Athinganoi, the name of a Christian sect with whom the Romani (or some related group) could have become associated in the past.[191][200][201][202]
History
Arrival in Europe
According to a 2012 genomic study, the Romani reached the Balkans as early as the 12th century.[133] A document of 1068, describing an event in Constantinople, mentions "Atsingani", probably referring to Romani.[203]
Later historical records of the Romani reaching southeastern Europe are from the 14th century: in 1322, after leaving Ireland on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, Irish
In 1350, Ludolph of Saxony mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called Mandapolos, a word possibly derived from the Greek word mantes (meaning prophet or fortune teller).[205]
In the 14th century, Romani are recorded in Venetian territories, including
By the 1440s, they were recorded in Germany;
Early modern history
Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in
A 1596 English statute gave Romanis special privileges that other wanderers lacked. France passed a similar law in 1683.
Since a royal edict by
During the latter part of the 17th century, around the Franco-Dutch War, both France and the Dutch Republic needed thousands of men to fight. Some recruitment took the form of rounding up vagrants and the poor to work the galleys and provide the armies' labour force. With this background, Romanis were targets of both the French and the Dutch.[214]
After the wars, and into the first decade of the 18th century, Romanis were slaughtered with impunity throughout the Dutch Republic. Romanis, called 'heiden' by the Dutch, wandered throughout the rural areas of Europe and became the societal pariahs of the age. Heidenjachten, translated as "heathen hunt" happened throughout the Dutch Republic in an attempt to eradicate them.[215]
Although some Romani could be kept as slaves in Wallachia and Moldavia until
Modern history
Romani began emigrating to North America in colonial times, with small groups recorded in
World War II
During
The Romani were also persecuted in Nazi
Post-1945
In Czechoslovakia, they were labeled a "socially degraded stratum", and Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, with threats of denying future welfare payments, with misinformation, or after administering drugs.[223][224]
An official inquiry from the Czech Republic, resulting in a report (December 2005), concluded that the Communist authorities had practised an assimilation policy towards Romanis, which "included efforts by social services to control the birth rate in the Romani community. The problem of sexual sterilisation carried out in the Czech Republic, either with improper motivation or illegally, exists," said the Czech Public Defender of Rights, recommending state compensation for women affected between 1973 and 1991.[225] New cases were revealed up until 2004, in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Germany, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland "all have histories of coercive sterilization of minorities and other groups".[226]
Society and traditional culture
The traditional Romanies place a high value on the extended family. Traditionally, virginity is essential in unmarried women. However, Eastern European Roma people are more likely to find it acceptable for girls to have sex before marriage compared to other Eastern Europeans.[227] Both men and women often marry young; there has been controversy in several countries over the Romani practice of child marriage.[228] Romani law establishes that the man's family must pay a bride price to the bride's parents, but only traditional families still follow it.
Once married, the woman joins the husband's family, where her main job is to tend to her husband's and her children's needs and take care of her in-laws. The power structure in the traditional Romani household has at its top the oldest man or grandfather, and men, in general, have more authority than women. Women gain respect and power as they get older. Young wives begin gaining authority once they have children.[229]
Traditionally, as can be seen on paintings and photos, some Roma men wear shoulder-length hair and a mustache, as well as an earring. Roma women generally have long hair, and Xoraxane Roma women often dye it blonde with henna.[230]
Romani
Death is considered impure, and affects the whole family of the dead, who remain impure for a period of time. In contrast to the practice of cremating the dead, Romani dead must be buried.[233] Cremation and burial are both known from the time of the Rigveda, and both are widely practiced in Hinduism today (the general tendency is for Hindus to practice cremation, though some communities in modern-day south India tend to bury their dead).[234] Animals that are considered to be having unclean habits are not eaten by the community.[235]
Belonging and exclusion
In Romani philosophy, Romanipen (also romanypen, romanipe, romanype, romanimos, romaimos, romaniya) is the totality of the Romani spirit, Romani culture, Romani Law, being a Romani, a set of Romani strains.[236]
An ethnic Romani is considered a
Religion
Most Romani are Christian,
Some Roma practice witchcraft and palmistry.[240]
Beliefs
The modern-day Romani adopted Christianity or Islam depending on the regions through which they had migrated.
Deities and saints
Saint Sarah is now increasingly being considered as "a Romani Goddess, the Protectress of the Roma" and an "indisputable link with Mother India".[245][246]
Balkans
For the Roma communities that have resided in the Balkans for numerous centuries, often referred to as "Turkish Gypsies", the following histories apply for religious beliefs:
- Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro – Islam is the dominant religion among the Roma.[247]
- Bulgaria – In northwestern Bulgaria, in addition to Sofia and Kyustendil, Christianity is the dominant faith among the Romani, and a major conversion to Eastern Orthodox Christianity among the Romani has occurred. In southeastern Bulgaria, Islam is the dominant religion among the Romani, with a smaller section of the Romani declaring themselves as "Turks", continuing to mix ethnicity with Islam.[247]
- Croatia – After the Second World War, a large number of Muslim Roma relocated to Croatia, the majority moving from Kosovo. Their language differs from those living in Međimurje and those who survived Romani Holocaust.[247]
- Greece – The descendants of groups, such as Sepečides or Sevljara, Kalpazaja, Filipidži and others, living in Athens, Thessaloniki, central Greece and Greek Macedonia are mostly Orthodox Christians, with Islamic beliefs held by a minority of the population. Following the Peace Treaty of Lausanne of 1923, many Muslim Roma moved to Turkey in the subsequent population exchange between Turkey and Greece.[247]
- Kosovo – The vast majority of the Roma population in Kosovo is Muslim.[247]
- Macedonia – The majority of Roma people are followers of Islam.[247]
- Romania – According to the Baptists, 0.8% Seventh-Day Adventists.[248] In Dobruja, there is a small community that are Muslim and also speak Turkish.[247]
- Serbia – Most Roma people in Serbia are Orthodox Christian, but there are some Muslim Roma in southern Serbia, who are mainly refugees from Kosovo.[247]
Other regions
In Ukraine and Russia, the Roma populations are also Muslim as the families of Balkan migrants continue to live in these locations. Their ancestors settled on the Crimean peninsula during the 17th and 18th centuries, but some migrated to Ukraine, southern Russia and the Povolzhie (along the Volga River). Formally, Islam is the religion that these communities align with and the people are recognized for their staunch preservation of the Romani language and identity.[247]
In Poland and Slovakia, Romani populations are Roman Catholic, many times adopting and following local, cultural Catholicism as a syncretic system of belief that incorporates distinct Roma beliefs and cultural aspects. For example, many Polish Roma delay their Church wedding due to the belief that sacramental marriage is accompanied by divine ratification, creating a virtually indissoluble union until the couple consummate, after which the sacramental marriage is dissoluble only by the death of a spouse. Therefore, for Polish Roma, once married, one can't ever divorce. Another aspect of Polish Roma's Catholicism is a tradition of pilgrimage to the Jasna Góra Monastery.[249]
Most Eastern European Romanies are
Music
Romani music plays an important role in central and eastern European countries such as Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia and Romania, and the style and performance practices of Romani musicians have influenced European
Probably the most internationally prominent contemporary performers in the lăutari tradition are
Many famous classical musicians, such as the
Another tradition of Romani music is the genre of the Romani brass band, with such notable practitioners as Boban Marković of Serbia, and the brass lăutari groups Fanfare Ciocărlia and Fanfare din Cozmesti of Romania.[255]
The distinctive sound of Romani music has also strongly influenced bolero, jazz, and flamenco (especially cante jondo) in Spain.[256]
Dances such as the flamenco and bolero of Spain were influenced by the Romani.[257] Antonio Cansino blended Romani and Spanish flamenco and is credited with creating modern-day Spanish dance.[258] The Dancing Cansinos popularized flamenco and bolero dancing in the United States. Famous dancer and actress, Rita Hayworth, is the granddaughter of Antonio Cansino.
European-style gypsy jazz ("jazz Manouche" or "Sinti jazz") is still widely practiced among the original creators (the Romanie People); one who acknowledged this artistic debt was guitarist Django Reinhardt.[259] Contemporary artists in this tradition known internationally include Stochelo Rosenberg, Biréli Lagrène, Jimmy Rosenberg, Paulus Schäfer and Tchavolo Schmitt.
The Romani in Turkey have achieved musical acclaim from national and local audiences. Local performers usually perform for special holidays. Their music is usually performed on instruments such as the darbuka, gırnata and cümbüş.[260]
Folklore
Romani folktales and legends are known as paramichia. A hero among the Vlach Roma is Mundro Salamon, or Wise Solomon. Other Romani groups call this hero O Godjiaver Yanko.[261]
The Roma believe in the mulo or mullo, which means "one who is dead". These beings are the Roma's version of the vampire.[262]
Cuisine
The Roma believe that some foods are auspicious, or lucky (baxtalo), such as foods with pungent tastes like garlic, lemon, tomato, and peppers, and fermented foods such as sauerkraut, pickles and sour cream.[263] Hedgehogs are a delicacy among some Roma.[264]
Contemporary art and culture
Romani contemporary art emerged at the climax of the process that began in Central and Eastern Europe in the late 1980s, when the interpretation of the cultural practice of minorities was enabled by a paradigm shift, commonly referred to in specialist literature as the "cultural turn". The idea of the cultural turn was introduced; and this was also the time when the notion of cultural democracy became crystallized in the debates carried on at various public forums. Civil society gained strength, and civil politics appeared, which is a prerequisite for cultural democracy. This shift of attitude in scholarly circles derived from concerns specific not only to ethnicity but also to society, gender and class.[265]
Language
Most Romani speak one of several dialects of the
There are no concrete statistics for the number of Romani speakers, both in Europe and globally. However, a conservative estimate is 3.5 million speakers in Europe and a further 500,000 elsewhere,[268] though the actual number may be considerably higher. This makes Romani the second-largest minority language in Europe, behind Catalan.[268]
In regards to the diversity of dialects, Romani works in the same way as most other European languages.[269] Cross-dialect communication is dominated by the following features:
- All Romani speakers are bilingual, accustomed to borrowing words or phrases from a second language; this makes it difficult to communicate with Romanis from different countries
- Romani was traditionally a dialectsfrom other countries, and is why Romani is sometimes considered to be several different languages.
- There is no tradition or literary standard for Romani speakers to use as a guideline for their language use.[269]
Persecutions
Historical persecution
One of the most enduring persecutions against the Romani was their enslavement. Slavery was widely practiced in medieval Europe, including the territory of present-day Romania from before the founding of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in the 13th–14th centuries.[270] Legislation decreed that all the Romani living in these states, as well as any others who immigrated there, were classified as slaves.[271] Slavery was gradually abolished during the 1840s and 1850s.[270]
The exact origins of slavery in the Danubian Principalities are not known. There is some debate over whether the Romani came to Wallachia and Moldavia as free men or were brought there as slaves. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and he also considered their enslavement a vestige of that era, in which the Romanians took the Roma from the Mongols and preserved their status as slaves so they could use their labor. Other historians believe that the Romani were enslaved while they were being captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners of war may have also been adopted from the Mongols.[270]
Some Romani may have been slaves of the Mongols or the Tatars or they may have served as auxiliary troops in the Mongol or Tatar armies, but most of them migrated from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the founding of Wallachia. By then, the institution of slavery was already established in Moldavia and it was possibly established in both principalities. After the Roma migrated into the area, slavery became a widespread practice among the majority of the population. The Tatar slaves, smaller in numbers, were eventually merged into the Roma population.[272]
Some branches of the Romani reached western Europe in the 15th century, fleeing from the
On 30 July 1749, Spain conducted
Later in the 19th century, Romani immigration was forbidden on a racial basis in areas outside Europe, mostly in the English-speaking world. In 1880, Argentina prohibited immigration by Roma, as did the United States in 1885.[274]
Forced assimilation
In the
Most historians believe that Charles III's pragmática failed for three main reasons, reasons which were ultimately derived from its implementation outside major cities as well as in marginal areas: The difficulty which the Gitano community faced in changing its nomadic lifestyle, the marginal lifestyle to which the community had been driven by society and the serious difficulties of applying the pragmática in the fields of education and work. One author ascribes its failure to the overall rejection of the integration of the Gitanos by the wider population.[277][280]
Other policies of forced assimilation were implemented in other countries, one of these countries was Norway, where a law which permitted the state to remove children from their parents and place them in state institutions was passed in 1896.[281] This resulted in some 1,500 Romani children being taken from their parents in the 20th century.[282]
Porajmos (Romani Holocaust)
During
Because no accurate pre-war census figures exist for the Romanis, the actual number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust cannot be assessed. Most estimates of the number of Romani victims who were killed in the Romani Holocaust range from 200,000 to 500,000, but other estimates vary broadly from 90,000 to as high as 4,000,000. Lower estimates do not include those Romanis who were killed in all
Contemporary issues
In Europe, Romani are associated with poverty, blamed for high crime rates, and accused of behaving in ways that are considered antisocial or inappropriate by the rest of the European population.[287] Partly for this reason, discrimination against the Romani has continued to be practiced to the present day,[288][289] although efforts are being made to address it.[290]
In eastern Europe, Roma children often attend Roma Special Schools, separate from non-Roma children; these schools tend to offer a lower quality of education than the traditional education options accessible by non-Roma children, putting the Roma children at an educational disadvantage.[299]: 83
The Romanis of Kosovo have been severely persecuted by ethnic Albanians since the end of the Kosovo War, and for the most part, the region's Romani community has been annihilated.[300]
Czechoslovakia carried out a policy of sterilization of Romani women, starting in 1973.[225] The dissidents of the Charter 77 denounced it in 1977–78 as a genocide, but the practice continued through the Velvet Revolution of 1989.[301] A 2005 report by the Czech Republic's independent ombudsman, Otakar Motejl, identified dozens of cases of coercive sterilization between 1979 and 2001, and called for criminal investigations and possible prosecution against several health care workers and administrators.[302]
In 2008, following the rape and subsequent murder of an Italian woman in Rome at the hands of a young man from a local Romani encampment,[303] the Italian government declared that Italy's Romani population represented a national security risk and it also declared that it was required to take swift action to address the emergenza nomadi (nomad emergency).[304] Specifically, officials in the Italian government accused the Romanies of being responsible for rising crime rates in urban areas.[305]
The 2008 deaths of Cristina and Violetta Djeordsevic, two Roma children who drowned while Italian beach-goers remained unperturbed, brought international attention to the relationship between Italians and the Roma people. Reviewing the situation in 2012, one Belgian magazine observed:
On International Roma Day, which falls on 8 April, the significant proportion of Europe's 12 million Roma who live in deplorable conditions will not have much to celebrate. And poverty is not the only worry for the community. Ethnic tensions are on the rise. In 2008, Roma camps came under attack in Italy, intimidation by racist parliamentarians is the norm in Hungary. Speaking in 1993, Václav Havel prophetically remarked that "the treatment of the Roma is a litmus test for democracy": and democracy has been found wanting. The consequences of the transition to capitalism have been disastrous for the Roma. Under communism they had jobs, free housing and schooling. Now many are unemployed, many are losing their homes and racism is increasingly rewarded with impunity.[306]
The 2016 Pew Research poll found that Italians, in particular, hold strong anti-Roma views, with 82% of Italians expressing negative opinions about Roma. In Greece, 67%, in Hungary 64%, in France 61%, in Spain 49%, in Poland 47%, in the UK 45%, in Sweden 42%, in Germany 40%, and in the Netherlands[307] 37% had an unfavourable view of Roma.[308] The 2019 Pew Research poll found that 83% of Italians, 76% of Slovaks, 72% of Greeks, 68% of Bulgarians, 66% of Czechs, 61% of Lithuanians, 61% of Hungarians, 54% of Ukrainians, 52% of Russians, 51% of Poles, 44% of French, 40% of Spaniards, and 37% of Germans held unfavorable views of Roma.[309] IRES published in 2020 a survey which revealed that 72% of Romanians have a negative opinion about them.[310]
As of 2019, reports of anti-Roma incidents are increasing across Europe.[311] Discrimination against Roma remains widespread in Kosovo,[312] Romania,[313] Slovakia,[314] Bulgaria,[315][316] and the Czech Republic,[317][318] against which the European Court of Human Rights has ruled in Romani advocates' favor on the subject of discriminatory and segregationist education and housing practices.[319] Roma communities across Ukraine have been the target of violent attacks.[320][321]
Roma refugees fleeing the
Concerning employment, on average, across the European states which were surveyed, 16% of Roma women were in paid work in 2016 compared to a third of men.[325]
Forced repatriation
In the summer of 2010, French authorities demolished at least 51 Roma camps and began the
Organizations and projects
- World Romani Congress
- European Roma Rights Centre
- Gypsy Lore Society[331]
- International Romani Union
- Decade of Roma Inclusion, multinational project
- International Romani Day (8 April)
- Contact Point for Roma and Sinti Issues
- National Advisory Board on Romani Affairs (Finland)
Artistic representations
Many depictions of the Romani in literature and art present romanticized narratives of the mystical powers of
-
Esméralda
-
Nicolae Grigorescu: Gypsy from Boldu (1897), Art Museum of Iași
-
Fortune-telling scene, from Charlotte Brontë's novel Jane Eyre (1847)
-
Mihály Munkácsy: Gypsy Family (1884, oil on canvas)
-
Vincent van Gogh: The Caravans – Gypsy Camp near Arles (1888, oil on canvas)
-
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, c. 1530. Elizabeth, at right, is shown as a Romani fortune-teller
-
Maggie and the Gypsy, from George Eliot's novel The Mill on the Floss (1860)
-
August von Pettenkofen: Gypsy Children (1885), Hermitage Museum
See also
- History of the Romani people
- Gitanos
- Gypsy Scourge
- King of the Gypsies
- Romani studies
- Romani society and culture
- Romani literature
- Romani dress
- Romani diaspora
- Racism in Europe
- Ethnic groups in Europe
- Environmental racism in Europe
- Romani folklore
- Romani cuisine
- Sinti people
- The Blond Angel Case
General
Lists
Other
- Dom people
- Lom people
- Indian people
- Indian diaspora
- Lori people
- Indo-Roman relations
Notes
- 2000 census.
- ^ This is a census figure. Some 736,981 (10% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities. In a Bulgarian government report on the census, the ethnic results are identified as a "gross manipulation".[18]
- ^ This is a census figure. There was an option to declare multiple ethnicities, so this figure includes Romani of multiple backgrounds. According to the 2016 microcensus 99.1% of Hungarian Romani declared Hungarian ethnic identity also.
- ^ Approximate estimate.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i This is a census figure.
- ^ This is a census figure. Some 368,136 (5.1% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
- ^ This is a census figure. Some 408,777 (7.5% of the population) did not declare any ethnicity. There was not any option for a person to declare multiple ethnicities.
- ^ This is a census figure. Less than 1% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
- ^ This is a census figure including Romani, Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians.
- ^ This is a census figure. Some 25% of the population did not declare any ethnicity.
- ^ The Welsh language alphabet lacks the letter k.
- ^ "Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million."
- ^ Muslim Romas were excluded from the Deportation of Muslims from Greece's new conquered territory following the First Balkan War and presently form the majority of Greece's native Muslim population.
References
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Ian Hancock's 1987 estimate for 'all Gypsies in the world' was 6 to 11 million.
- ^ "EU demands action to tackle Roma poverty". BBC News. 5 April 2011.
- ^ "The Roma". Nationalia. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
- ^ "Rom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
... estimates of the total world Roma population range from two million to five million.
- ^ Smith, J. (2008). The marginalization of shadow minorities (Roma) and its impact on opportunities (Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University).
- ^ a b Kayla Webley (13 October 2010). "Hounded in Europe, Roma in the U.S. Keep a Low Profile". Time. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
Today, estimates put the number of Roma in the U.S. at about one million.
- ^ "Falta de políticas públicas para ciganos é desafio para o governo" [Lack of public policy for Romani is a challenge for the administration] (in Portuguese). R7. 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
The Special Secretariat for the Promotion of Racial Equality estimates the number of "ciganos" (Romanis) in Brazil at 800,000 (2011). The 2010 IBGE Brazilian National Census encountered Romani camps in 291 of Brazil's 5,565 municipalities.
- ^ "Roma integration in Spain". European Commission. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v "Roma and Travellers Team. Tools and Texts of Reference. Estimates on Roma population in European countries (excel spreadsheet)". rm.coe.int Council of Europe Roma and Travellers Division.
- ^ "Estimated by the Society for Threatened Peoples". Society for Threatened Peoples. 17 May 2007. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021.
- ^ "The Situation of Roma in Spain" (PDF). Open Society Institute. 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 December 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
The Spanish government estimates the number of Gitanos to be a maximum of 650,000.
- ^ a b "Diagnóstico social de la comunidad gitana en España: Un análisis contrastado de la Encuesta del CIS a Hogares de Población Gitana 2007" (PDF). mscbs.gob.es. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
Tabla 1. La comunidad gitana de España en el contexto de la población romaní de la Unión Europea. Población Romaní: 750.000 [...] Por 100 habitantes: 1.87% [...] se podrían llegar a barajar cifras [...] de 1.100.000 personas
- ^ "Primele rezultate ale Recensământului 2022: Populația României a scăzut la 19.053.815 locuitori" [The first results of the 2022 Census: Romania's population decreased to 19,053,815 inhabitants]. HotNews (in Romanian). 30 December 2022.
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- ^ "Türkiye'deki Çingene nüfusu tam bilinmiyor. 2, hatta 5 milyon gibi rakamlar dolaşıyor Çingenelerin arasında". Hurriyet (in Turkish). TR. 8 May 2005. Archived from the original on 7 October 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
- ^ "Критичен доклад относно Преброяването на населението и жилищния фонд, проведено към 1 февруари 2011 година" [Critical report on Population and Housing Census, Conducted as of 1 February 2011] (in Bulgarian). Bulgarian National Statistical Institute. 2011.
- ^ Население по местоживеене, възраст и етническа група [Population by place of residence, age and ethnic group] (in Bulgarian). Bulgarian National Statistical Institute. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2015. Self declared
- ^ "Roma Integration – 2014 Commission Assessment: Questions and Answers" (Press release). Brussels: European Commission. 4 April 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2016. EU and Council of Europe estimates
- ISBN 978-963-235-542-9. Retrieved 9 January 2019.
- S2CID 197566729.
- ^ "Situation of Roma in France at crisis proportions". EurActiv Network. 7 December 2005. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
According to the report, the settled Gypsy population in France is officially estimated at around 500,000, although other estimates say that the actual figure is much closer to 1.2 million.
- ^ Gorce, Bernard (22 July 2010). "Roms, gens du voyage, deux réalités différentes". La Croix. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[Manual Translation] The ban prevents statistics on ethnicity to give a precise figure of French Roma, but we often quote the number 350,000. For travellers, the administration counted 160,000 circulation titles in 2006 issued to people aged 16 to 80 years. Among the travellers, some have chosen to buy a family plot where they dock their caravans around a local section (authorized since the Besson Act of 1990).
- ^ "France - European Commission". Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ "Human Rights on the Margins Roma in Europe" (PDF). Retrieved 23 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Hazel Marsh. "The Roma Gypsies of Latin America". www.latinolife.co.uk. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- ^ "Emerging Romani Voices from Latin America". European Roma Rights Centre. Retrieved 3 March 2021.
- ^ "Roma integration in the United Kingdom". European Commission – European Commission.
- ^ "RME", Ethnologue
- ^ Попис становништва, домаћинстава и станова 2011. у Републици Србији: Национална припадност [Census of population. Households and apartments in 2011 in the Republic of Serbia: Ethnicity] (PDF) (in Serbian). State Statistical Service of the Republic of Serbia. 29 November 2012. p. 8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 July 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
- ^ "Serbia: Country Profile 2011–2012" (PDF). European Roma Rights Centre. p. 7. Retrieved 17 July 2017.
- ^ "Giornata Internazionale dei rom e sinti: presentato il Rapporto Annuale 2014 (PDF)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
- ^ "Premier Tsipras Hosts Roma Delegation for International Romani Day". greekreporter – place. Nick Kampouris. 9 April 2019.
- ^ "Greece NGO". Greek Helsinki Monitor. LV: Minelres.
- ^ "Roma in Deutschland", Regionale Dynamik, Berlin-Institut für Bevölkerung und Entwicklung, archived from the original on 29 April 2017, retrieved 21 February 2013
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- ^ "Population and Housing Census. Resident population by nationality" (PDF). SK: Statistics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2007.
- ^ "Po deviatich rokoch spočítali Rómov, na Slovensku ich žije viac ako 400-tisíc". SME (in Slovak). SK: SITA. 25 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.
- ^ "Rom d'Albania" (in Italian). 18 January 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2024.
- ^ "Gypsy". www.iranian.com. Archived from the original on 15 May 2017.
- ^ "GYPSY i. Gypsies of Persia". Encyclopædia Iranica. 12 December 2002.
- ^ "Total resident population, households and dwellings in the Republic of North Macedonia, census 2021" (PDF). State Statistical Office of the Republic of North Macedonia. pp. 32–33. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
- ^ "Sametingen. Information about minorities in Sweden", Minoritet (in Swedish), IMCMS, archived from the original on 26 March 2017, retrieved 30 March 2013
- ^ Всеукраїнський перепис населення '2001: Розподіл населення за національністю та рідною мовою [Ukrainian Census, 2001: Distribution of population by nationality and mother tongue] (in Ukrainian). UA: State Statistics Service of Ukraine. 2003. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
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'Religion: An underlay of Hinduism with an overlay of either Christianity or Islam (host country religion)'; Roma religious beliefs are rooted in Hinduism. Roma believe in a universal balance, called kuntari. ... Despite a 1,000-year separation from India, Roma still practice 'shaktism', the worship of a god through his female consort...
- ^ a b Vishvapani (29 November 2011). "Hungary's Gypsy Buddhists & Religious Discrimination". www.wiseattention.org. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
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- ISBN 978-1-902806-99-0.
- PMID 36360305.
Based on genome-wide SNP arrays and whole-genome sequences, it has been determined that the Romani people carry approximately 20–35% South Asian ancestry [4,7], and North-West India constitutes the major source of this component [4,7,54] [...] In general, Romani people carry approximately 65–80% West Eurasian (European, Middle Eastern and Caucasian) ancestry, estimated to have been acquired by extensive gene flow.
- ^ Hernández-Arrieta, Stefany (7 August 2023). "The definition of being Romani". Barcelona Biomedical Research Park (PRBB) - El·lipse. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
This population [...] migrated from northern India to Europe over 1,500 years ago [...] The Romani community are genetically diverse, and Romani groups established in different locations are highly varied.
- ^ Beňo, Matúš (5 November 2022). "Romani disappearing from Roma communities". The Slovak Spectator. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
What is the current state of the language? It is used less and less today in Romani communities. The young generation in some localities, such as Humenné, Michalovce, or Trebišov in eastern Slovakia, no longer speak the language at all.
- ISBN 978-1-4422-5749-8.
The Romani people are frequently referred to as "gypsies," but many of them consider this exonym a derogatory term.
In some regions of Europe, especially the western margins (Britain, the Iberian peninsula), Romani-speaking communities have given up their language in favor of the majority language, but have retained Romani-derived vocabulary as an in-group code. Such codes, for instance Angloromani (Britain), Caló (Spain), or Rommani (Scandinavia) are usually referred to as Para-Romani varieties.
Mnohočetnost romských skupin je patrně pozůstatkem diferenciace Romů do původních indických kast a podkast. [The multitude of Roma groups is apparently a relic of Roma differentiation to Indian castes and subcastes.]
the Sinti lived in German territory, the Manusha in France, the Romanitsel in England, the Kale in Spain and Portugal, and the Kaale in Finland.
One spokesman was to serve the Lalleri Gypsies, a closely-knit tribe originally from the German-speaking part of Bohemia and Moravia that in 1939 had become a German protectorate.
In the autumn of 1941, German police authorities deported 5,007 Sinti and Lalleri Gypsies from Austria to the ghetto for Jews in Lodz, where they resided in a segregated section
The word "manush" is also included in all dialects of Romany. It means man, while "Manusha" equals people. This word has the same form and meaning in Sanskrit as well, and is almost identical in other Indian languages.
Rom have preserved and modified Indian caste system
Sources
- Achim, Viorel (2004). The Roma in Romanian History. Budapest: ISBN 978-963-9241-84-8.
- Fraser, Angus (1992), The Gypsies, Oxford, UK: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-15967-4
- Hancock, Ian (2001), Ame sam e rromane džene, New York: The Open Society Institute
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Further reading
- Bereznay, András. Historical Atlas of the Gypsies: Romani History in Maps (Budapest: Méry Ratio, 2021) see online review of this book
- Taylor, Becky (2014). Another Darkness, Another Dawn: A History of Gypsies, Roma and Travellers. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-257-7.
- ISBN 978-1-902806-71-6.
- Werner Cohn (1973). The Gypsies (PDF). Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-11362-4.
- De Soto, Hermine; Beddies, Sabine; Gedeshi, Ilir (2005). Roma and Egyptians in Albania: From Social Exclusion to Social Inclusion (Report). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.
- Fonseca, Isabel (1995). Bury me standing: the Gypsies and their journey. New York: AA Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-40678-5.
- V. Glajar; D. Radulescu (2008). Gypsies in European Literature and Culture. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 978-0-230-61163-4.
- Gray, RD; Atkinson, QD (2003). S2CID 42340.
- Gresham, David; Morar, Bharti; Underhill, Peter A.; Passarino, Giuseppe; Lin, Alice A.; Wise, Cheryl; Angelicheva, Dora; Calafell, Francesc; Oefner, Peter J.; Shen, Peidong; Tournev, Ivailo; de Pablo, Rosario; Kuĉinskas, Vaidutis; Perez-Lezaun, Anna; Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin; Kalaydjieva, Luba (December 2001). "Origins and Divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 69 (6): 1314–1331. PMID 11704928.
- Kalaydjieva, Luba; Calafell, Francesc; Jobling, Mark A; Angelicheva, Dora; de Knijff, Peter; Rosser, ZoëH; Hurles, Matthew E; Underhill, Peter; Tournev, Ivailo; Marushiakova, Elena; Popov, Vesselin (February 2001). "Patterns of inter- and intra-group genetic diversity in the Vlax Roma as revealed by Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA lineages". European Journal of Human Genetics. 9 (2): 97–104. S2CID 21432405.
- Ringold, Dena (2000), Roma & the Transition in Central & Eastern Europe: Trends & Challenges, Washington, DC: World Bank.
- Turner, Ralph L (1926), "The Position of Romani in Indo-Aryan", Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, 3rd, 5 (4): 145–188
- McDowell, Bart (1970). Gypsies, wanderers of the world. National Geographic Society. Special Publications Division. ISBN 978-0-87044-088-5.
- Sancar Seckiner's comprehensible book South (Güney), 2013, consists of 12 article and essays. One of them, Ikiçeşmelik, highlights Turkish Romani life. Ref. ISBN 978-605-4579-45-7.
- Sancar Seckiner' s new book Thilda's House (Thilda'nın Evi), 2017, underlines the struggle of the Romani in Istanbul who have been swept away from nearby Kadikoy. Ref. ISBN 978-605-4160-88-4.
- Radenez Julien (2014). Recherches sur l'histoire des Tsiganes.
- Auzias, Claire (2002), Les funambules de l'histoire (in French) (Éditions la Digitale ed.), Baye: La Digitale
External links
European countries Roma links
- "European Roma Institute for Arts and Culture (ERIAC)".
- History the Roma and Sinti in Germany.
- "General introduction", History of the Roma in Austria, AT: Uni Graz, archived from the original on 7 April 2022, retrieved 28 October 2013.
- "History of the Roma in Czech Republic". CZ: Rommuz. Archived from the original on 28 October 2013.
- Deportation, EU: Romas Inti, archived from the original on 15 December 2013, retrieved 28 October 2013. History of some Roma Europeans
- Gypsies in France, 1566–2011, FYI France, archived from the original on 19 May 2011, retrieved 28 October 2010; The concentration, labor, ghetto camps that the Roma were persecuted in during World War II
- Auschwitz, archived from the original on 6 May 2012, retrieved 28 October 2013.
- "Hodonin", History: Camps, CZ: Holocaus.
- History, CZ: Lety memorial, archived from the original on 26 March 2017, retrieved 28 October 2013.
- "The situation of the Roma in the European Union" (resolution). European Parliament. 28 April 2005. Archived from the original on 26 December 2007..
- "Final report on the human rights situation of the Roma, Sinti and travellers in Europe". The European Commissioner for Human rights (Council of Europe). 15 February 2006..
- Shot in remote areas of the Thar desert in west India, Jaisalmer Ayo: Gateway of the Gypsies on YouTubecaptures the lives of vanishing nomadic communities who are believed to share common ancestors with the Roma people – released 2004
General information
- "RomArchive" (in English, German, and Romany). — education on the arts and civil rights movements
- "Romani Atlantic". — transcontinental perspective
International organisations
Non-governmental organisations
- European Roma Rights Centre.
- The Gypsy Lore Society. Beginning in 1888, the Gypsy Lore Society started to publish a journal that was meant to dispel rumors about their lifestyle.
Museums and libraries
- Museum of Romani Culture (in Czech), Brno, CZ.
- Studii romani (specialized library with archive), Sofia, BG, archived from the original on 21 August 2006, retrieved 21 August 2006.
- Documentation and Cultural Centre of German Sinti and Roma, Heidelberg, DE.
- Ethnographic Museum (in Polish), Tarnów, PL.
- "Who we Were, Who we Are: Kosovo Roma Oral History Collection". March 2004. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 8 May 2018. The most comprehensive collection of information on Kosovo's Roma in existence.
Internet Visual Media