Crohn's disease
Crohn's disease | |
---|---|
Other names | Crohn disease, Crohn syndrome, granulomatous enteritis, regional enteritis, Leśniowski-Crohn disease |
Prognosis | Slightly increased risk of death[11] |
Frequency | 3.2 per 1,000 (developed world)[12] |
Named after |
Crohn's disease is a type of
Although the precise causes of Crohn's disease (CD) are unknown, it is believed to be caused by a combination of environmental,
About half of the overall risk is related to genetics, with more than 70 genes involved.[1][20] Tobacco smokers are three times as likely to develop Crohn's disease as non-smokers.[6] It often begins after gastroenteritis.[1] Other conditions with similar symptoms include irritable bowel syndrome and Behçet's disease.[1]
There is no known cure for Crohn's disease.
Crohn's disease affects about 3.2 per 1,000 people in Europe and North America;
Name controversy
The disease was named after
Signs and symptoms
Crohn's disease | Ulcerative colitis | |
---|---|---|
Defecation | Often porridge-like,[31] sometimes steatorrhea |
Often mucus-like and with blood[31] |
Tenesmus | Less common[31] | More common[31] |
Fever | Common[31] | Indicates severe disease[31] |
Fistulae | Common[32] | Seldom |
Weight loss | Often | More seldom |
Gastrointestinal
Many people with Crohn's disease have symptoms for years before the diagnosis.
Perianal
Intestines
The intestines, especially the colon and terminal ileum, are the areas of the body affected most commonly.
Stomach and esophagus
The stomach is rarely the sole or predominant site of CD. To date there are only a few documented case reports of adults with isolated gastric CD and no reports in the pediatric population. Isolated stomach involvement is very unusual presentation accounting for less than 0.07% of all gastrointestinal CD.[40] Rarely, the esophagus and stomach may be involved in Crohn's disease. These can cause symptoms including difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), upper abdominal pain, and vomiting.[41]
Oropharynx (mouth)
The mouth may be affected by recurrent sores (
People with Crohn's disease are also susceptible to
Systemic
Like many other chronic, inflammatory diseases, Crohn's disease can cause a variety of
Extraintestinal
Crohn's disease can affect many organ systems beyond the gastrointestinal tract.[47]
Crohn's disease |
Ulcerative colitis | ||
---|---|---|---|
Nutrient deficiency | Higher risk | ||
Colon cancer risk |
Slight | Considerable | |
Prevalence of extraintestinal complications[48][49][50] | |||
Iritis/uveitis |
Females | 2.2% | 3.2% |
Males | 1.3% | 0.9% | |
Primary sclerosing cholangitis |
Females | 0.3% | 1% |
Males | 0.4% | 3% | |
Ankylosing spondylitis |
Females | 0.7% | 0.8% |
Males | 2.7% | 1.5% | |
Pyoderma gangrenosum |
Females | 1.2% | 0.8% |
Males | 1.3% | 0.7% | |
Erythema nodosum | Females | 1.9% | 2% |
Males | 0.6% | 0.7% |
Visual
Inflammation of the interior portion of the eye, known as uveitis, can cause blurred vision and eye pain, especially when exposed to light (photophobia).[51] Uveitis can lead to loss of vision if untreated.[47]
Inflammation may also involve the white part of the eye (
Other very rare ophthalmological manifestations include: conjunctivitis, glaucoma, and retinal vascular disease.[52]
Gallbladder and liver
Crohn's disease that affects the ileum may result in an increased risk of gallstones. This is due to a decrease in bile acid resorption in the ileum, and the bile gets excreted in the stool. As a result, the cholesterol/bile ratio increases in the gallbladder, resulting in an increased risk for gallstones.[51] Although the association is greater in the context of ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease may also be associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis, a type of inflammation of the bile ducts.[53]
Liver involvement of Crohn's disease can include
Other rare hepatobiliary manifestations of Crohn's disease include: cholangiocarcinoma, granulomatous hepatitis, cholelithiasis, autoimmune hepatitis, hepatic abscess, and pericholangitis.[52]
Renal and urological
Urological manifestations in patients with IBD may include ureteral calculi, enterovesical fistula, perivesical infection, perinephric abscess, and obstructive uropathy with hydronephrosis. Ureteral compression is associated with retroperitoneal extension of the phlegmonous inflammatory process involving the terminal ileum and cecum, and may result in hydronephrosis severe enough to cause hypertension.[52]
Immune complex glomerulonephritis presenting with proteinuria and hematuria has been described in children and adults with CD or UC. Diagnosis is by renal biopsy, and treatment parallels the underlying IBD.[52]
Amyloidosis (see endocrinological involvement) secondary to Crohn's disease has been described and is known to affect the kidneys.[52]
Pancreatic
Pancreatitis may be associated with both UC and CD. The most common cause is iatrogenic and involves sensitivity to medications used to treat IBD (3% of patients), including sulfasalazine, mesalamine, 6-mercaptopurine, and azathioprine. Pancreatitis may present as symptomatic (in 2%) or more commonly asymptomatic (8–21%) disease in adults with IBD.[52]
Cardiovascular and circulatory
Children and adults with IBD have been rarely (<1%) reported developing pleuropericarditis either at initial presentation or during active or quiescent disease. The pathogenesis of pleuropericarditis is unknown, although certain medications (e.g., sulfasalazine and mesalamine derivatives) have been implicated in some cases. The clinical presentation may include chest pain, dyspnea, or in severe cases pericardial tamponade requiring rapid drainage. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs have been used as therapy, although this should be weighed against the hypothetical risk of exacerbating the underlying IBD.[52]
In rare cases, cardiomyopathy, endocarditis, and myocarditis have been described.[52]
Crohn's disease also increases the risk of
Respiratory
Considering extraintestinal manifestations of CD, those involving the lung are relatively rare. However, there is a wide array of lung manifestations, ranging from subclinical alterations, airway diseases and lung parenchymal diseases to pleural diseases and drug-related diseases. The most frequent manifestation is bronchial inflammation and suppuration with or without bronchiectasis. There are a number of mechanisms by which the lungs may become involved in CD. These include the same embryological origin of the lung and gastrointestinal tract by ancestral intestine, similar immune systems in the pulmonary and intestinal mucosa, the presence of circulating immune complexes and auto-antibodies, and the adverse pulmonary effects of some drugs.[57] A complete list of known pulmonary manifestations include: fibrosing alveolitis, pulmonary vasculitis, apical fibrosis, bronchiectasis, bronchitis, bronchiolitis, tracheal stenosis, granulomatous lung disease, and abnormal pulmonary function.[52]
Musculoskeletal
Crohn's disease is associated with a type of rheumatologic disease known as seronegative spondyloarthropathy.[51] This group of diseases is characterized by inflammation of one or more joints (arthritis) or muscle insertions (enthesitis).[51] The arthritis in Crohn's disease can be divided into two types. The first type affects larger weight-bearing joints such as the knee (most common), hips, shoulders, wrists, or elbows.[51] The second type symmetrically involves five or more of the small joints of the hands and feet.[51] The arthritis may also involve the spine, leading to ankylosing spondylitis if the entire spine is involved, or simply sacroiliitis if only the sacroiliac joint is involved.[51]
Crohn's disease increases the risk of osteoporosis or thinning of the bones.[51] Individuals with osteoporosis are at increased risk of bone fractures.[58]
Dermatological
Crohn's disease may also involve the skin, blood, and
Pyoderma gangrenosum is a less common skin problem, occurring in under 2%,[60] and is typically a painful ulcerating nodule.[59][47]
Clubbing, a deformity of the ends of the fingers, may also be a result of Crohn's disease.[citation needed]
Other very rare dermatological manifestations include:
Neurological
Crohn's disease can also cause
Central and peripheral neurological disorders are described in patients with IBD and include peripheral neuropathies, myopathies, focal central nervous system defects, convulsions, confusional episodes, meningitis, syncope, optic neuritis, and sensorineural loss. Autoimmune mechanisms are proposed for involvement with IBD. Nutritional deficiencies associated with neurological manifestations, such as vitamin B12 deficiency, should be investigated. Spinal abscess has been reported in both a child and an adult with initial complaints of severe back pain due to extension of a psoas abscess from the epidural space to the subarachnoid space.[52]
Psychiatric and psychological
Crohn's disease is linked to many psychological disorders, including depression and anxiety, denial of one's disease, the need for dependence or dependent behaviors, feeling overwhelmed, and having a poor self-image.[62]
Many studies have found that patients with IBD report a higher frequency of depressive and anxiety disorders than the general population; most studies confirm that women with IBD are more likely than men to develop affective disorders and show that up to 65% of them may have depression and anxiety disorder.[63][64]
Endocrinological or hematological
Secondary amyloidosis (AA) is another rare but serious complication of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), generally seen in Crohn's disease. At least 1% of patients with Crohn's disease develop amyloidosis. In the literature, the time lapse between the onset of Crohn's disease and the diagnosis of amyloidosis has been reported to range from 1 to 21 years.
In rare cases, hypercoagulation disorders and portal vein thrombosis have been described.[52]
Malnutrition symptoms
People with Crohn's disease may develop anemia due to
Complications
Intestinal damage
Crohn's disease can lead to several mechanical complications within the
Symptoms caused by
Intestinal granulomas are a walled-off portions of the intestine by macrophages in order to isolate infections. Granuloma formation is more often seen in younger patients, and mainly in the severe, active penetrating disease.[73] Granuloma is considered the hallmark of microscopic diagnosis in Crohn's disease (CD), but granulomas can be detected in only 21–60% of CD patients.[73]
Cancer
Crohn's disease also increases the risk of
Some studies suggest there is a role for chemoprotection in the prevention of colorectal cancer in Crohn's involving the colon; two agents have been suggested,
Some cancers, such as acute myelocytic leukaemia have been described in cases of Crohn's disease.[52] Hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma (HSTCL) is a rare, lethal disease generally seen in young male patients with inflammatory bowel disease. TNF-α Inhibitor treatments (infliximab, adalimumab, certolizumab, natalizumab, and etanercept) are thought to be the cause of this rare disease.[79]
Major complications
Major complications of Crohn's disease include
Other complications
Individuals with Crohn's disease are at risk of
Pregnancy
Crohn's disease can be problematic during
Common complications of an
Etiology
The
Autoinflammatory theory
Crohn's disease can be described as a multifactorial autoinflammatory disease. The etiopathogenesis of Crohn's disease is still unknown. In any event, a loss of the regulatory capacity of the immune apparatus would be implicated in the onset of the disease. In this respect interestingly enough, as for
Some examples of how the innate immune system affects bowel inflammation have been described.
The thinking is that because Crohn's disease has strong innate immune system involvement and has NOD2 mutations as a predisposition, Crohn's disease is more likely an autoinflammatory disease than an autoimmune disease.[87]
Immunodeficiency theory
A substantial body of data has emerged in recent years to suggest that the primary defect in Crohn's disease is actually one of relative
Risk factors
Crohn's disease | Ulcerative colitis | |
---|---|---|
Smoking | Higher risk for smokers | Lower risk for smokers[90] |
Age | Usual onset between 15 and 30 years[91] |
Peak incidence between 15 and 25 years |
While the exact cause or causes are unknown, Crohn's disease seems to be due to a combination of environmental factors and genetic predisposition.[92] Crohn's is the first genetically complex disease in which the relationship between genetic risk factors and the immune system is understood in considerable detail.[93] Each individual risk mutation makes a small contribution to the overall risk of Crohn's (approximately 1:200). The genetic data, and direct assessment of immunity, indicates a malfunction in the innate immune system.[94] In this view, the chronic inflammation of Crohn's is caused when the adaptive immune system tries to compensate for a deficient innate immune system.[95]
Genetics
Crohn's has a genetic component.[97] Because of this, siblings of known people with Crohn's are 30 times more likely to develop Crohn's than the general population.[98]
The first mutation found to be associated with Crohn's was a
Crohn's has been linked to the gene
Immune system
There was a prevailing view that Crohn's disease is a primary
In 2007, the ATG16L1 gene was implicated in Crohn's disease, which may induce
Microbes
It is hypothesized that maintenance of
There is an apparent connection between Crohn's disease,
NOD2 is a gene involved in Crohn's genetic susceptibility. It is associated with
Other studies have linked specific strains of enteroadherent E. coli to the disease.[125] Adherent-invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC), more common in people with CD,[126][127][125] have the ability to make strong biofilms compared to non-AIEC strains correlating with high adhesion and invasion indices[128][129] of neutrophils and the ability to block autophagy at the autolysosomal step, which allows for intracellular survival of the bacteria and induction of inflammation.[130] Inflammation drives the proliferation of AIEC and dysbiosis in the ileum, irrespective of genotype.[131] AIEC strains replicate extensively inside macrophages inducing the secretion of very large amounts of TNF-α.[132]
Mouse studies have suggested some symptoms of Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome have the same underlying cause. Biopsy samples taken from the colons of all three patient groups were found to produce elevated levels of a serine protease.[133] Experimental introduction of the serine protease into mice has been found to produce widespread pain associated with irritable bowel syndrome, as well as colitis, which is associated with all three diseases.[134] Regional and temporal variations in those illnesses follow those associated with infection with the protozoan Blastocystis.[135]
The "cold-chain" hypothesis is that
There is also a tentative association between Candida colonization and Crohn's disease.[139]
Still, these relationships between specific pathogens and Crohn's disease remain unclear.[140][141]
Environmental factors
The increased incidence of Crohn's in the
Those who consume vegetable proteins appear to have a lower incidence of Crohn's disease. Consumption of fish protein has no association.[142] Smoking increases the risk of the return of active disease (flares).[6] The introduction of hormonal contraception in the United States in the 1960s is associated with a dramatic increase in incidence, and one hypothesis is that these drugs work on the digestive system in ways similar to smoking.[143] Isotretinoin is associated with Crohn's.[144][145][146]Although
Pathophysiology
Crohn's disease | Ulcerative colitis | |
---|---|---|
Cytokine response | Associated with Th17[153] |
Vaguely associated with Th2
|
During a colonoscopy, biopsies of the colon are often taken to confirm the diagnosis. Certain characteristic features of the pathology seen point toward Crohn's disease; it shows a transmural pattern of inflammation, meaning the inflammation may span the entire depth of the intestinal wall.[1]
Granulomas, aggregates of macrophage derivatives known as giant cells, are found in 50% of cases and are most specific for Crohn's disease. The granulomas of Crohn's disease do not show "caseation", a cheese-like appearance on microscopic examination characteristic of granulomas associated with infections, such as tuberculosis. Biopsies may also show chronic mucosal damage, as evidenced by blunting of the intestinal villi, atypical branching of the crypts, and a change in the tissue type (metaplasia). One example of such metaplasia, Paneth cell metaplasia, involves the development of Paneth cells (typically found in the small intestine and a key regulator of intestinal microbiota) in other parts of the gastrointestinal system.[154][155]
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of Crohn's disease can sometimes be challenging,
-
Endoscopic image of Crohn's colitis showing deep ulceration
-
CT scan showing Crohn's disease in the fundus of the stomach
-
Section of colectomy showing transmural inflammation
-
Resected ileum from a person with Crohn's disease
Classification
Crohn's disease is one type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It typically manifests in the gastrointestinal tract and can be categorized by the specific tract region affected.
Gastroduodenal Crohn's disease causes inflammation in the stomach and the first part of the small intestine called the duodenum. Jejunoileitis causes spotty patches of inflammation in the top half of the small intestine, called the jejunum.[158] The disease can attack any part of the digestive tract, from mouth to anus. However, individuals affected by the disease rarely fall outside these three classifications, with presentations in other areas.[1]
Crohn's disease may also be categorized by the behavior of disease as it progresses. These categorizations formalized in the Vienna classification of the disease.
Endoscopy
A
Radiologic tests
A
Blood tests
A complete blood count may reveal anemia, which commonly is caused by blood loss leading to iron deficiency or by vitamin B12 deficiency, usually caused by ileal disease impairing vitamin B12 absorption. Rarely autoimmune hemolysis may occur.[170] Ferritin levels help assess if iron deficiency is contributing to the anemia. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and C-reactive protein help assess the degree of inflammation, which is important as ferritin can also be raised in inflammation.[171]
Other causes of anemia include medication used in treatment of inflammatory bowel disease, like azathioprine, which can lead to cytopenia, and sulfasalazine, which can also result in folate deficiency. Testing for Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA) and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA) has been evaluated to identify inflammatory diseases of the intestine[172] and to differentiate Crohn's disease from ulcerative colitis.[173] Furthermore, increasing amounts and levels of serological antibodies such as ASCA, antilaminaribioside [Glc(β1,3)Glb(β); ALCA], antichitobioside [GlcNAc(β1,4)GlcNAc(β); ACCA], antimannobioside [Man(α1,3)Man(α)AMCA], antiLaminarin [(Glc(β1,3))3n(Glc(β1,6))n; anti-L] and antichitin [GlcNAc(β1,4)n; anti-C] associate with disease behavior and surgery, and may aid in the prognosis of Crohn's disease.[174][175][176][177]
Low serum levels of vitamin D are associated with Crohn's disease.[178] Further studies are required to determine the significance of this association.[178]
Comparison with ulcerative colitis
The most common disease that mimics the symptoms of Crohn's disease is ulcerative colitis, as both are inflammatory bowel diseases that can affect the colon with similar symptoms. It is important to differentiate these diseases, since the course of the diseases and treatments may be different. In some cases, however, it may not be possible to tell the difference, in which case the disease is classified as indeterminate colitis.[1][37][38]
Crohn's disease | Ulcerative colitis | |
---|---|---|
Terminal ileum involvement |
Commonly | Seldom |
Colon involvement | Usually | Always |
Rectum involvement | Seldom | Usually (95%)[90] |
Involvement around the anus |
Common[179] | Seldom |
Bile duct involvement | No increase in rate of primary sclerosing cholangitis | Higher rate[180] |
Distribution of disease | Patchy areas of inflammation (skip lesions) | Continuous area of inflammation[90] |
Endoscopy | Deep geographic and serpiginous (snake-like) ulcers
|
Continuous ulcer |
Depth of inflammation | May be transmural, deep into tissues[179][181] | Shallow, mucosal |
Stenosis | Common | Seldom |
Granulomas on biopsy | May have non- | Non-peri- intestinal crypt granulomas not seen[184]
|
Differential diagnosis
Other conditions with similar symptoms as Crohn's disease includes intestinal
Management
Crohn's disease |
Ulcerative colitis
| |
---|---|---|
Mesalazine | Less useful[189] | More useful[189] |
Antibiotics | Effective in long-term[190] | Generally not useful[191] |
Surgery | Often returns following removal of affected part |
Usually cured by removal of colon |
There is no cure for Crohn's disease and
Lifestyle changes
Certain lifestyle changes can reduce symptoms, including dietary adjustments, elemental diet, proper hydration, and smoking cessation. Recent reviews underlined the importance to adopt diets that are best supported by evidence, even if little is known about the impact of diets on these patients.[193][194] Diets that include higher levels of fiber and fruit are associated with reduced risk, while diets rich in total fats,
Medication
Acute treatment uses medications to treat any infection (normally
Medications used to treat the symptoms of Crohn's disease include
The gradual loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract, as well as chronic inflammation, often leads to anemia, and professional guidelines suggest routinely monitoring for this.[206][207][208]
Immunosuppressant therapies, infection risks and vaccinations
Many patients affected by Crohn's disease need immunosuppressant therapies, which are known to be associated with a higher risk of contracting opportunistic infectious diseases and of pre-neoplastic or neoplastic lesions such as cervical high-grade dysplasia and cancer.[209][210] Many of these potentially harmful diseases, such as Hepatitis B, Influenza, chickenpox, herpes zoster virus, pneumococcal pneumonia, or human papilloma virus, can be prevented by vaccines. Each drug used in the treatment of IBD should be classified according to the degree of immunosuppression induced in the patient. Several guidelines suggest investigating patients’ vaccination status before starting any treatment and performing vaccinations against Vaccine-preventable disease when required.[211][212] Compared to the rest of the population, patients affected by IBD are known to be at higher risk of contracting some
Surgery
Crohn's cannot be cured by surgery, as the disease eventually recurs, though it is used in the case of partial or full blockage of the intestine.[216] Surgery may also be required for complications such as obstructions, fistulas, or abscesses, or if the disease does not respond to drugs. After the first surgery, Crohn's usually comes back at the site where the diseased intestine was removed and the healthy ends were rejoined; it can also come back in other locations. After a resection, scar tissue builds up, which can cause strictures, which form when the intestines become too small to allow excrement to pass through easily, which can lead to a blockage. After the first resection, another resection may be necessary within five years.[217] For patients with an obstruction due to a stricture, two options for treatment are strictureplasty and resection of that portion of bowel. There is no statistical significance between strictureplasty alone versus strictureplasty and resection in cases of duodenal involvement. In these cases, re-operation rates were 31% and 27%, respectively, indicating that strictureplasty is a safe and effective treatment for selected people with duodenal involvement.[218]
Postsurgical recurrence of Crohn's disease is relatively common. Crohn's lesions are nearly always found at the site of the resected bowel. The join (or anastomosis) after surgery may be inspected, usually during a colonoscopy, and disease activity graded. The "Rutgeert's score" is an endoscopic scoring system for postoperative disease recurrence in Crohn's disease. Mild postsurgical recurrences of Crohn's disease are graded i1 and i2, moderate to severe recurrences are graded i3 and i4.[219] Fewer lesions result in a lower grade. Based on the score, treatment plans can be designed to give the patient the best chance of managing the recurrence of the disease.[220]
Microbiome modification
The use of oral
Mental health
Crohn's may result in
As of 2017[update] there is a small amount of research looking at
Alternative medicine
It is common for people with Crohn's disease to try
- Acupuncture is used to treat inflammatory bowel disease in China, and is being used more frequently in Western society.[228] At this time, evidence is insufficient to recommend the use of acupuncture.[227]
- A 2006 survey in Germany found that about half of people with IBD used some form of alternative medicine, with the most common being
- There are contradicting studies regarding the effect of medical cannabis on inflammatory bowel disease,[236] and its effects on management are uncertain.[237]
Prognosis
Crohn's disease is a
Epidemiology
The percentage of people with Crohn's disease has been determined in
Crohn's disease begins most commonly in people in their teens and 20s, and people in their 50s through to their 70s.[1][37][26] It is rarely diagnosed in early childhood. It usually affects female children more severely than males.[245] However, only slightly more women than men have Crohn's disease.[246] Parents, siblings or children of people with Crohn's disease are 3 to 20 times more likely to develop the disease.[247] Twin studies find that if one has the disease there is a 55% chance the other will too.[248]
The incidence of Crohn's disease is increasing in Europe[249] and in newly industrialised countries.[250] For example, in Brazil, there has been an annual increase of 11% in the incidence of Crohn's disease since 1990.[250]
History
Inflammatory bowel diseases were described by Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682–1771) and by Scottish physician Thomas Kennedy Dalziel in 1913.[251]
Ileitis terminalis was first described by Polish surgeon
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Further reading
- Lichtenstein GR, Loftus EV, Isaacs KL, Regueiro MD, Gerson LB, Sands BE (April 2018). "ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of Crohn's Disease in Adults". Am. J. Gastroenterol. 113 (4): 481–517. PMID 29610508.
External links
- "Crohn's disease". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- Media related to Crohn's disease at Wikimedia Commons