Tetrodotoxin
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IUPAC name
(4R,4aR,5R,6S,7S,8S,8aR,10S,12S)-2-azaniumylidene-4,6,8,12-tetrahydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)-2,3,4,4a,5,6,7,8-octahydro-1H-8a,10-methano-5,7-(epoxymethanooxy)quinazolin-10-olate
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Other names
anhydrotetrodotoxin, 4-epitetrodotoxin, tetrodonic acid, TTX
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Identifiers | |
3D model (
JSmol ) |
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ChEBI | |
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ChemSpider | |
ECHA InfoCard
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100.022.236 |
IUPHAR/BPS |
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KEGG | |
PubChem CID
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UNII | |
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
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Properties | |
C11H17N3O8 | |
Molar mass | 319.270 g·mol−1 |
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
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Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent
Although it produces thousands of intoxications annually and several deaths,[3] it has shown efficacy for the treatment of cancer-related pain in phase II and III clinical trials.[4]
Tetrodotoxin is a
Its mechanism of actionToshio Narahashi and John W. Moore at Duke University, using the sucrose gap voltage clamp technique.[6]
— selective blocking of the sodium channel — was shown definitively in 1964 bySources in nature
Apart from their bacterial species of most likely ultimate biosynthetic origin (see below), tetrodotoxin has been isolated from widely differing animal species, including:[1]
- all octopuses and cuttlefish in small amounts, but specifically several species of the blue-ringed octopus,[1][2][5] including Hapalochlaena maculosa (where it was called "maculotoxin"),[2]
- various
- certain angelfish,[7]
- species of Nassarius gastropods,[1][2][5]
- species of Naticidae (moon snails),[1][8]
- several starfish, including Astropecten species,[1][2][5]
- several species of xanthid crabs.[1][2]
- species of Chaetognatha (arrow worms),[1][5]
- species of Nemertea (ribbon worms),[1][5]
- a polyclad flatworm,[1]
- toads of the genus Atelopus,[1]
- toads of the genus Brachycephalus,[10]
- the eastern newt (Notophthalmus viridescens)[11]
- the western or rough-skinned newts (Taricha; wherein it was originally termed "tarichatoxin"),[1]
Tarichatoxin was shown to be identical to TTX in 1964 by Mosher et al.,[12][13] and the identity of maculotoxin and TTX was reported in Science in 1978,[14] and the synonymity of these two toxins is supported in modern reports (e.g., at Pubchem[15] and in modern toxicology textbooks[16]) though historic monographs questioning this continue in reprint.[17]
The toxin is variously used by
The association of TTX with consumed, infecting, or symbiotic bacterial populations within the animal species from which it is isolated is relatively clear;[1] presence of TTX-producing bacteria within an animal's microbiome is determined by culture methods, the presence of the toxin by chemical analysis, and the association of the bacteria with TTX production by toxicity assay of media in which suspected bacteria are grown.[2] As Lago et al. note, "there is good evidence that uptake of bacteria producing TTX is an important element of TTX toxicity in marine animals that present this toxin."[2] TTX-producing bacteria include Actinomyces, Aeromonas, Alteromonas, Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Vibrio species;[2] in the following animals, specific bacterial species have been implicated:[a]
Animal | Bacteria | Ref |
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Takifugu obscurus, obscure pufferfish |
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[2][5] |
Nassarius semiplicatus, a gastropod |
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[1] |
Hapalochlaena maculosa, the Southern blue-ringed octopus |
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[1][2][5][20] |
Astropecten polyacanthus, a starfish | Vibrio alginolyticus | [2][5] |
Takifugu vermicularis, a pufferfish |
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[1][2][5][21] |
Four species of Chaetognatha (arrow worms) |
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[22] |
Species of Nemertea (ribbon worms) | Vibrio spp. | [1][23] |
The association of bacterial species with the production of the toxin is unequivocal – Lago and coworkers state, "[e]ndocellular symbiotic bacteria have been proposed as a possible source of eukaryotic TTX by means of an exogenous pathway",
Biochemistry
Tetrodotoxin binds to what is known as site 1 of the fast voltage-gated sodium channel.[26] Site 1 is located at the extracellular pore opening of the ion channel. Any molecule bound to this site will block sodium ions from going into the nerve cell through this channel (which is ultimately necessary for nerve conduction). Saxitoxin, neosaxitoxin, and several of the conotoxins also bind the same site.[27]
The use of this toxin as a biochemical probe has elucidated two distinct types of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) present in mammals: tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated sodium channels (TTX-s Na+ channels) and tetrodotoxin-resistant voltage-gated sodium channels (TTX-r Na+ channels). Tetrodotoxin inhibits TTX-s Na+ channels at concentrations of around 1–10 nM,
TTX and its analogs have historically been important agents for use as chemical tool compounds, for use in channel characterization and in fundamental studies of channel function.
Biosynthesis
The biosynthetic route to TTX is only partially understood. It is long known that the molecule is related to saxitoxin, and as of 2011 it is believed that there are separate routes for aquatic (bacterial) and terrestrial (newt) TTX.[32] In 2020, new intermediates found in newts suggest that the synthesis starts with geranyl guanidine in the amphibian; these intermediates were not found in aquatic TTX-containing animals, supporting the separate-route theory.[33] In 2021, the first genome of a TTX-producing bacterium was produced. This "Bacillus sp. 1839" was identified as Cytobacillus gottheilii using its rRNA sequence. The researcher responsible for this study has not yet identified a coherent pathway but hopes to do so in the future.[34]
Resistance
Animals that accumulate TTX as a defense mechanism as well as their predators must evolve to be resistant to the effects of TTX. Mutations in the VGSC genes, especially the genes for Nav 1.4 (skeletal muscle VGSC, "TTX-s"[35]), are found in many such animals.[36] These mutations have independently arisen several times, even multiple times in different populations of the same species as seen in the garter snake. They consist of different amino acid substitutions in similar positions, a weak example of convergent evolution caused by how TTX binds to the unmutated VGSC.[36]
Another path to TTX resistance is toxin-binding proteins that hold onto TTX tightly enough to prevent it reaching the vulnerable VGSCs. Various proteins that bind TTX have been found in pufferfish, crabs, and gastropods. There are also proteins that bind saxitoxin (STX), a toxin with a similar mode of action.[36]
Chemical synthesis
In 1964, a team of scientists led by
Poisoning
Toxicity
TTX is extremely toxic. The
The toxin can enter the body of a victim by ingestion, injection, or inhalation, or through abraded skin.[50]
Poisoning occurring as a consequence of consumption of fish from the order
The mechanism of toxicity is through the blockage of fast voltage-gated sodium channels, which are required for the normal transmission of signals between the body and brain.[52] As a result, TTX causes loss of sensation, and paralysis of voluntary muscles including the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, stopping breathing.[53]
History
The therapeutic uses of puffer fish (
The German physician Engelbert Kaempfer, in his "A History of Japan" (translated and published in English in 1727), described how well known the toxic effects of the fish were, to the extent that it would be used for suicide and that the Emperor specifically decreed that soldiers were not permitted to eat it.[55] There is also evidence from other sources that knowledge of such toxicity was widespread throughout southeast Asia and India.[30]
The first recorded cases of TTX poisoning affecting Westerners are from the logs of Captain James Cook from 7 September 1774.[51] On that date Cook recorded his crew eating some local tropic fish (pufferfish), then feeding the remains to the pigs kept on board. The crew experienced numbness and shortness of breath, while the pigs were all found dead the next morning. In hindsight, it is clear that the crew survived a mild dose of tetrodotoxin, while the pigs ate the pufferfish body parts that contain most of the toxin, thus being fatally poisoned.
The toxin was first isolated and named in 1909 by Japanese scientist Dr. Yoshizumi Tahara.[2][56][51] It was one of the agents studied by Japan's Unit 731, which evaluated biological weapons on human subjects in the 1930s.[57]
Symptoms and treatment
The diagnosis of pufferfish poisoning is based on the observed symptomatology and recent dietary history.[58]
Symptoms typically develop within 30 minutes of ingestion, but may be delayed by up to four hours; however, if the dose is fatal, symptoms are usually present within 17 minutes of ingestion.
If the patient survives 24 hours, recovery without any aftereffects will usually occur over a few days.[58]
Therapy is supportive and based on symptoms, with aggressive early airway management.
No
Worldwide distribution of toxicity
Poisonings from tetrodotoxin have been almost exclusively associated with the consumption of pufferfish from waters of the Indo-Pacific Ocean regions, primarily because equally toxic pufferfishes from other regions are much less commonly eaten. Several reported cases of poisonings, including fatalities, nonetheless involved pufferfish from the Atlantic Ocean,
In 2009, a major scare in the Auckland Region of New Zealand was sparked after several dogs died eating Pleurobranchaea maculata (grey side-gilled seaslug) on beaches.[62] Children and pet owners were asked to avoid beaches, and recreational fishing was also interrupted for a time. After exhaustive analysis, it was found that the sea slugs must have ingested tetrodotoxin.[63]
Statistical factors
Statistics from the Tokyo Bureau of Social Welfare and Public Health indicate 20–44 incidents of fugu poisoning per year between 1996 and 2006 in the entire country, leading to 34–64 hospitalizations and 0–6 deaths per year, for an average fatality rate of 6.8%.[64] Of the 23 incidents recorded within Tokyo between 1993 and 2006, only one took place in a restaurant, while the others all involved fishermen eating their catch.[64] From 2006 through 2009 in Japan there were 119 incidents involving 183 people but only seven people died.[65]
Only a few cases have been reported in the United States, and outbreaks in countries outside the Indo-Pacific area are rare. In Haiti, tetrodotoxin was thought to have been used in voodoo preparations, in so-called zombie poisons. Subsequent careful analysis has however repeatedly called early studies into question on technical grounds, and failed to identify the toxin in any preparation.[66][67][68] Discussion of the matter has therefore all but disappeared from the primary literature since the early 1990s. Kao and Yasumoto concluded in the first of their papers in 1986 that "the widely circulated claim in the lay press to the effect that tetrodotoxin is the causal agent in the initial zombification process is without factual foundation."[66]: 748
Genetic background is not a factor in susceptibility to tetrodotoxin poisoning. This toxicosis may be avoided by not consuming animal species known to contain tetrodotoxin, principally pufferfish; other tetrodotoxic species are not usually consumed by humans.
Fugu as a food
Poisoning from tetrodotoxin is of particular public health concern in Japan, where
Food analysis
The mouse bioassay developed for
Detection in body fluids
Tetrodotoxin may be quantified in serum, whole blood or urine to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to assist in the forensic investigation of a case of fatal overdosage. Most analytical techniques involve mass spectrometric detection following gas or liquid chromatographic separation.[70]
Modern therapeutic research
Tetrodotoxin has been investigated as a possible treatment for cancer-associated pain. Early clinical trials demonstrate significant pain relief in some patients.[71][72]
It has also been studied in relation to migraine headaches. Mutations in one particular TTX-sensitive Na+ channel are associated with some migraine headaches,[73] although it is unclear as to whether this has any therapeutic relevance for most people with migraine.[74]
Tetrodotoxin has been used clinically to relieve negative affects associated with
Regulation
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (February 2017) |
In the U.S., tetrodotoxin appears on the
Popular culture
Tetrodotoxin serves as a plot device for characters to fake death, as in the films
Based on the presumption that tetrodotoxin is not always fatal, but at near-lethal doses can leave a person extremely unwell with the person remaining conscious,
See also
- Clairvius Narcisse, Haitian man allegedly buried alive under the effect of TTX
- Tetrodocain, North Korean medical injection derived from tetrodotoxin
- 4-Aminopyridine
- Brevetoxin
- Ciguatoxin
- Conotoxin
- Domoic acid
- Neosaxitoxin
- Neurotoxin
- Okadaic acid
- Saxitoxin
- Tectin
References
- ^ For a more comprehensive list of TTX-producing bacterial species associated with animals from which the toxin has been isolated or toxicity observed, and for a thorough discussion of the research literature regarding bacterial origins (and the remaining contrary perspectives, e.g., in newts), as well as for a thorough speculative discussion regarding biosynthesis, see[1]
- ^ PMID 21543051. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-02-29.
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- ^ Sigma-Aldrich Tetrodotoxin (T8024) – Product Information Sheet.
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Maculotoxin, a potent neurotoxin isolated from the posterior salivary glands of the blue-ringed octopus. Hapalochlaena maculosa, has now been identified as tetrodotoxin. This is the first reported case in which tetrodotoxin has been found to occur in a venom.
- ^ "Tetrodotoxin". PubChem. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).
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- ^ As Chau et al., op. cit., note, "Despite its long history and a thorough knowledge of its toxicity and pharmacology, neither the pathway to TTX nor even the biogenic origin of TTX is known. The debate into whether TTX is derived from bacteria or is endogenous to the host animals is on-going and the only published study into the substrates of TTX biosynthesis proved inconclusive."
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- ^ Taber D (2005-05-02). "Synthesis of (-)-Tetrodotoxin". Organic Chemistry Portal. organic-chemistry.org.
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- ^ "Material Safety Data Sheet Tetrodotoxin ACC# 01139". Acros Organics N.V.
- ^ "Cyanides (as CN)". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
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- ^ "T8024 Sigma Tetrodotoxin". Catalogue. Sigma-Aldrich. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
- ^ Kaempfer E, Scheuchzer Johannes Caspar, trans. (1727). The History of Japan …. Historia imperii Japonici. Vol. 1. London, England: J.C. Scheuchzer (ed.). pp. 134–135.
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- ^ a b Benzer T. "Tetrodotoxin Toxicity". Medscape. Retrieved 23 August 2015.
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- ^ McNabb P, Mackenzie L, Selwood A, Rhodes L, Taylor D, Cornelison C (2009). "Review of tetrodotoxins in the sea slug Pleurobranchaea maculata and coincidence of dog deaths along Auckland Beaches" (PDF). Auckland Regional Council Technical Report 2009/108. Cawthron Institute for the Auckland Regional Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ Gibson E (15 August 2009). "Puffer fish toxin blamed for deaths of two dogs". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
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Tetrodotoxin blocks the sodium currents and is believed to have potential as a potent analgesic and as an effective agent in detoxoification from heroin addiction without withdrawal symptoms and without producing physical dependence.
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Further reading
- Bane V, Lehane M, Dikshit M, O'Riordan A, Furey A (2014). "Tetrodotoxin: chemistry, toxicity, source, distribution and detection". Toxins. 6 (2): 693–755. PMID 24566728.
- Lago J, Rodríguez LP, Blanco L, Vieites JM, Cabado AG (2015). "Tetrodotoxin, an Extremely Potent Marine Neurotoxin: Distribution, Toxicity, Origin and Therapeutical Uses". PMID 26492253.
- Moczydlowski EG (2013). "The molecular mystique of tetrodotoxin". Toxicon. 63: 165–83. PMID 23261990.
- Lange WR (1990). "Puffer fish poisoning". American Family Physician. 42 (4): 1029–33. PMID 2220511.
- Nagashima Y, Matsumoto T, Kadoyama K, Ishizaki S, Taniyama S, Takatani T, Arakawa O, Terayama M (2012). "Tetrodotoxin poisoning due to smooth-backed blowfish, Lagocephalus inermis and the toxicity of L. inermis caught off the Kyushu coast, Japan". Shokuhin Eiseigaku Zasshi. Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan. 53 (2): 85–90. PMID 22688023.
- Padera RF, Tse JY, Bellas E, Kohane DS (2006). "Tetrodotoxin for prolonged local anesthesia with minimal myotoxicity". Muscle & Nerve. 34 (6): 747–53. S2CID 22726109.
- Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (1996). "Tetrodotoxin poisoning associated with eating puffer fish transported from Japan – California, 1996". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 45 (19): 389–91. PMID 8609880.
- Cole JB, Heegaard WG, Deeds JR, McGrath SC, Handy SM (2015). "Tetrodotoxin poisoning outbreak from imported dried puffer fish – Minneapolis, Minnesota, 2014". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 63 (51): 1222–25. PMID 25551594.
- Liu SH, Tseng CY, Lin CC (2015). "Is neostigmine effective in severe pufferfish-associated tetrodotoxin poisoning?". Clinical Toxicology. 53 (1): 13–21. S2CID 23055817.
- Rivera VR, Poli MA, Bignami GS (1995). "Prophylaxis and treatment with a monoclonal antibody of tetrodotoxin poisoning in mice". Toxicon. 33 (9): 1231–37. PMID 8585093.
- Chang FC, Spriggs DL, Benton BJ, Keller SA, Capacio BR (1997). "4-Aminopyridine reverses saxitoxin (STX)- and tetrodotoxin (TTX)-induced cardiorespiratory depression in chronically instrumented guinea pigs". Fundamental and Applied Toxicology. 38 (1): 75–88. S2CID 17185707.
- Ahasan HA, Mamun AA, Karim SR, Bakar MA, Gazi EA, Bala CS (2004). "Paralytic complications of puffer fish (tetrodotoxin) poisoning". Singapore Medical Journal. 45 (2): 73–74. PMID 14985845.
- How CK, Chern CH, Huang YC, Wang LM, Lee CH (2003). "Tetrodotoxin poisoning". The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 21 (1): 51–54. PMID 12563582.
External links
- Tetrodotoxin at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- Tetrodotoxin: essential data (1999)
- Tetrodotoxin from the Bad Bug Book at the U.S. Food and Drug Administrationwebsite
- New York Times, "Whatever Doesn't Kill Some Animals Can Make Them Deadly"
- U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Tetrodotoxin