Native Americans in the United States
This article may be readable prose size was 21,000 words. . (March 2024) |
Total population | |
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American Indian and Alaska Native (2020 census)[1][2] One race: 3,727,135 are registered In combination with one or more of the other races listed: 5,938,923 Total: 9,666,058 ~ 2.9% of the total U.S. population. | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Predominantly in the | |
Religion | |
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Native Americans in the United States |
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Native Americans, sometimes called American Indians, First Americans, or Indigenous Americans, are the Indigenous peoples of the United States or portions thereof, such as American Indians from the contiguous United States and Alaska Natives. The United States Census Bureau defines Native American as "all people indigenous to the United States and its territories, including Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islanders, whose data are published separately from American Indians and Alaska Natives".[4] The U.S. census tracks data from American Indians and Alaska Native separately from Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders,[4] who include Samoan Americans and Chamorros.
The
When the United States was established, Native American tribes were generally considered semi-independent nations, because they generally lived in communities which were separate from communities of
The
Since the 1960s, Native American self-determination movements have resulted in positive changes to the lives of many Native Americans, though there are still many contemporary issues faced by them. Today, there are over five million Native Americans in the United States, 78% of whom live outside reservations. The states with the highest percentage of Native Americans in the U.S. are Alaska, Oklahoma, New Mexico, South Dakota, Montana, and North Dakota.[14][15]
Background
Beginning toward the end of the 15th century, the
- Aleut, Inuit, and Yupik peoples
- Subarctic
- Northeastern Woodlands
- Southeastern Woodlands
- Great Plains
- Great Basin
- Northwest Plateau
- Northwest Coast
- California
- Southwest (Oasisamerica)
At the time of the first contact, the Indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly
Native Americans suffered high fatality rates from
Estimates of pre-Columbian population of the area that today is the United States vary considerably. They range from William M. Denevan's estimate of 3.8 million- in his 1992 work, The Native Population of the Americas in 1492-to Henry F. Dobyns's 18 million in his 1983 work,Their Number Become Thinned.[18][19][21][22] Because Henry F. Dobyns' is by far the highest single-point estimate among professional academic researchers, it has been criticized as "politically motivated".[18] Dobyns' most vehement critic is perhaps David Henige, a bibliographer of African literature at the University of Wisconsin, whose Numbers From Nowhere (1998)[23] has been jocularly described as "a landmark in the literature of demographic fulmination".[18] Henige writes of Dobyns' work, "Suspect in 1966, it is no less suspect nowadays … If anything, it is worse."[18]
After the
During the 19th century, the ideology known as manifest destiny became integral to the American nationalist movement. Westward expansion of European American populations after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native Americans and their lands, warfare, and rising tensions. In 1830, the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the federal government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of the Mississippi River, in order to accommodate continued European American expansion. This resulted in what amounted to the ethnic cleansing or genocide of many tribes, who were subjected to brutal forced marches. The most infamous of these came to be known as the Trail of Tears.
Contemporary Native Americans have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes, or bands that have sovereignty and treaty rights upon which federal Indian law and a federal Indian trust relationship are based.[31] Cultural activism since the late 1960s has increased the participation of Indigenous peoples in American politics. It has also led to expanded efforts to teach and preserve Indigenous languages for younger generations, and to establish a more robust cultural infrastructure: Native Americans have founded independent newspapers and online media outlets, including First Nations Experience, the first Native American television channel;[32] established Native American studies programs, tribal schools universities, museums, and language programs. Literature is at the growing forefront of American Indian studies in many genres, with the notable exception of fiction—some traditional American Indians experience fictional narratives as insulting when they conflict with traditional oral tribal narratives.[33]
The terms used to refer to Native Americans
History
Settlement of the Americas
It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first emerged from, or settled, in the
Genetic evidence has suggested at least three waves of migrants arrived from East Asia, with the first occurring at least 15,000 years ago.[43] These migrations may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago[44] and continued to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the rising sea level at the onset of the current interglacial period.[45]
In November 2018, scientists of the University of São Paulo and Harvard University released a study of Luzia Woman, a 11,500-year-old skeleton of a Paleo-Indian woman who was found in a cave in Brazil. While initially believed to be part of the wave of Asian migrants, DNA and other evidence has shown this to be improbable. Using DNA sequencing, the results showed that Luzia was "entirely Amerindian", genetically.[46][47][48]
Pre-Columbian era
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all
Native American cultures are not normally included in characterizations of advanced Stone Age cultures as "Neolithic", which is a category that more often includes only the cultures in Eurasia, Africa, and other regions. The archaeological periods used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases.[49]
Lithic stage
Numerous
Archeological evidence at the Gault site near Austin, Texas, suggests that pre-Clovis peoples settled in present-day Texas some 16,000–20,000 years ago. Evidence of pre-Clovis cultures have also been found in the Paisley Caves in south-central Oregon and butchered mastodon bones in a sinkhole near Tallahassee, Florida. More convincingly but also controversially, another pre-Clovis has been discovered at Monte Verde in Chile.[51]
The
The Folsom tradition was characterized by the use of Folsom points as projectile tips and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of bison took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE.[53]
Archaic period
Since the 1990s, archaeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle
The
Post-archaic period
The Formative, Classic, and post-Classic stages are sometimes incorporated together as the Post-archaic period, which runs from 1,000 BCE onward..
The
The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of salmon as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift-giving feast, potlatch, is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate special events. These events include the raising of a Totem pole or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events.
The
Numerous pre-Columbian societies were sedentary, such as the
European exploration and colonization
After 1492, European exploration and colonization of the Americas revolutionized how the Old and New Worlds perceived themselves. Many of the first major contacts were in Florida and the Gulf coast by Spanish explorers.[76]
The use of the doctrine of discovery
During European exploration and colonization of the Americas, the Europeans adopted the use of the
Impact on native populations
From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Native Americans sharply declined.
The best attested example of possible intentional spread of smallpox occurred in 1763, when William Trent and Simeon Ecuyer, a Swiss mercenary in British service, may have given items from a smallpox infirmary as gifts to Native American emissaries with the hope of spreading the deadly disease to nearby tribes. The effectiveness is unknown, although it is known that the method used is inefficient compared to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are difficult to differentiate from epidemics occurring from previous contacts with colonists.[94]
In 1837, Mandan Native Americans at Fort Clark fell victim to a smallpox epidemic; some scholars have claimed they were intentionally infected with smallpox blankets.[95][96][97][98][99]
In 1634,
Through the mid-17th century, the
In 1727, the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula founded Ursuline Academy in New Orleans, which is currently the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States. From the time of its foundation, it offered the first classes for Native American girls, and would later offer classes for female African American slaves and free women of color.
Between 1754 and 1763, many Native American tribes were involved in the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War. Those involved in the fur trade tended to ally with French forces against British colonial militias. The British had made fewer allies, but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories. They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned. The tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies. Some Iroquois who were loyal to the British and helped them fight in the American Revolution, fled north into Canada.
After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of Northwest Coast Native Americans. For the next eighty to one hundred years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region.[103] Puget Sound area populations, once estimated as high as 37,000 people, were reduced to only 9,000 survivors by the time settlers arrived en masse in the mid-19th century.[104]
Smallpox epidemics in
Animal introductions
With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were carried from one to the other, both deliberately and by chance, in what is called the
17th century
King Philip's War
King Philip's War, also called Metacom's War or Metacom's Rebellion, was the last major armed[110] conflict between Native American inhabitants of present-day southern New England and English colonists and their Native American allies from 1675 to 1676. It continued in northern New England (primarily on the Maine frontier) even after King Philip was killed, until a treaty was signed at Casco Bay in April 1678.[111]
18th century
Natural society
Some European philosophers considered Native American societies to be truly "natural" and representative of a golden age known to them only in folk history.[112]
American Revolution
During the
In 1779, the Sullivan Expedition was carried out during the American Revolutionary War against the British and the four allied nations of the Iroquois. George Washington gave orders that made it clear he wanted the Iroquois threat eliminated:
The Expedition you are appointed to command is to be directed against the hostile tribes of the Six Nations of Indians, with their associates and adherents. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more.[113]
The British made peace with the Americans in the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans.
United States
Settlers from New England and new immigrants to the
United States policy toward Native Americans continued to change after the American Revolution. George Washington and Henry Knox believed that Native Americans were equals but that their society was inferior. Washington formulated a policy to encourage the "civilizing" process.[25] Washington had a six-point plan for this, which included:
- Impartial justice toward Native Americans
- Regulated buying of Native American lands
- Promotion of commerce
- Promotion of experiments to civilize or improve Native American society
- Presidential authority to give presents
- Punishing those who violated Native American rights.[27]
In the late 18th century, reformers, starting with Washington and Knox,
19th century
The population of California Indians was reduced by 90% during the 19th century—from more than 250,000 to 200,000 in the early 19th century to approximately 15,000 at the end of the century, mostly due to disease.
Westward expansion
As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers' encroachment in several regions of the new nation (and in unorganized territories), from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the Native American tribes of the Great Plains. East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811–1812, known as Tecumseh's War. During the War of 1812, Tecumseh's forces allied themselves with the British. After Tecumseh's death, the British ceased to aid the Native Americans south and west of Upper Canada and American expansion proceeded with little resistance. Conflicts in the Southeast include the Creek War and Seminole Wars, both before and after the Indian removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes.
In the 1830s, President Andrew Jackson signed the
In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase, "Manifest Destiny", as the "design of Providence" supporting the territorial expansion of the United States.[127] Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion for the U.S. took place at the cost of their occupied land.[128] A justification for the policy of conquest and subjugation of the Indigenous people emanated from the stereotyped perceptions of all Native Americans as "merciless Indian savages" (as described in the United States Declaration of Independence).[129] Sam Wolfson in The Guardian writes, "The declaration's passage has often been cited as an encapsulation of the dehumanizing attitude toward Indigenous Americans that the US was founded on."[130]
The Indian Appropriations Act of 1851 set the precedent for modern-day Native American reservations through allocating funds to move western tribes onto reservations since there were no more lands available for relocation.
Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U.S. throughout the 19th century, through what were called generally
I don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth.[132]
One of the last and most notable events during the Indian wars was the
Days after the massacre, the author L. Frank Baum wrote:
The Pioneer has before declared that our only safety depends upon the total extermination of the Indians. Having wronged them for centuries, we had better, in order to protect our civilization, follow it up by one more wrong and wipe these untamed and untamable creatures from the face of the earth.[134]
American Civil War
Native Americans served in both the
Removals and reservations
In the 19th century, the incessant westward expansion of the United States incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the Treaty of Hopewell of 1785. Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river.
As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this
Native Americans and U.S. citizenship
In 1817, the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U.S. citizens. Under Article 8 of the 1817 Cherokee treaty, "Upwards of 300 Cherokees (Heads of Families) in the honest simplicity of their souls, made an election to become American citizens".[30][143]
Factors establishing citizenship included:
- Treaty provision (as with the Cherokee)
- Registration and land allotment under the Dawes Act of February 8, 1887
- Issuance of patent in fee simple
- Adopting habits of civilized life
- Minor children
- Citizenship by birth
- Becoming soldiers and sailors in the U.S. Armed Forces
- Marriage to a U.S. citizen
- Special act of Congress.
After the American Civil War, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 states, "that all persons born in the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, excluding Indians not taxed, are hereby declared to be citizens of the United States".[144]
Indian Appropriations Act of 1871
In 1871, Congress added a rider to the Indian Appropriations Act, signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant, ending United States recognition of additional Native American tribes or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties.[145]
Historical education
After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the government established
Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and admitted to these boarding schools. They were forced to abandon their cultural traditions, and were taught about American ideas of refinement and civilization.
The sexual abuse of Indigenous children in boarding schools was perpetrated by the administrators of these programs. Teachers, nuns, and priests performed these acts upon their students. Children were touched and molested to be used as pleasure by these mentors who were supposed to educate them. Several mentors considered these students as objects and sexually abused them by forming rotations to switch in and out whenever they were done sexually tormenting the next student. These adults also used sexual abuse as a form of embarrassment towards each other. In tracing the path of violence, several students experienced an assault that, "can only be described as unconscionable, it was a violation not only of a child's body but an assault on their spirit". This act created a majority among the children who were victims in silence. This recurred in boarding schools across the nation in different scenarios. These include boys being sexually assaulted on their 13th birthdays to girls being forcibly taken at night by the priest to be used as objects.[153]
Before the 1930s, schools on the reservations provided no formal schooling beyond what the settlers considered the sixth grade. To obtain more formal education, that would enable them to get jobs among the settlers, the children were often sent to boarding school.[154] Small reservations with a few hundred people usually sent their children to nearby public schools.
The "
The Indian Division of the Civilian Conservation Corps operated large-scale construction projects on the reservations, building thousands of new schools and community buildings. Under the leadership of John Collier the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) brought in settler teachers to reshape Indian education. The BIA by 1938 taught 30,000 students in 377 boarding and day schools, or 40% of all Indian children in school. The Navajo largely opposed schooling of any sort, but the other tribes accepted the system. There were now high schools on larger reservations, educating not only teenagers but also an adult audience. There were no Indian facilities for higher education.[156][157]
Since the rise of self-determination for Native Americans, and the revealing of the abuse that took place at the boarding schools, Native American communities now have their own schools, many of which additionally include tribal languages and culture, and tribal history in the curriculum. Beginning in the 1970s, tribes have also founded colleges at their reservations, controlled, and operated by Native Americans, to educate youth for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures. Circa 2020, the Bureau of Indian Education operates approximately 183[158] schools, primarily non-boarding, and primarily located on reservations. The schools have 46,000 students.[159] In March 2020 the BIA finalized a rule to create Standards, Assessments and Accountability System (SAAS) for all BIA schools. The motivation behind the rule is to prepare BIA students to be ready for college and careers.[160]
20th century
On August 29, 1911, Ishi, generally considered to have been the last Native American to live most of his life without contact with European American culture, was discovered near Oroville, California.[161][162][163]
In 1919, the United States under President Woodrow Wilson granted citizenship to all Native Americans who had served in World War I. Nearly 10,000 men had enlisted and served, a high number in relation to their population.[164] Despite this, in many areas Native Americans faced local resistance when they tried to vote and were discriminated against with barriers to voter registration.
On June 2, 1924, U.S. President Republican
Republican
American Indians today in the United States have all the rights guaranteed in the U.S. Constitution, can vote in elections, and run for political office. Controversies remain over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over tribal affairs, sovereignty, and cultural practices.[167]
Mid-century, the
The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. Total spending on Indians averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to a low of $23 million in 1933, and returning to $38 million in 1940.[169]
World War II
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the U.S. military during World War II: at the time, one-third of all able-bodied Indian men from eighteen to fifty years of age.[170] Described as the first large-scale exodus of Indigenous peoples from the reservations since the removals of the 19th century, the men's service with the U.S. military in the international conflict was a turning point in Native American history. The overwhelming majority of Native Americans welcomed the opportunity to serve; they had a voluntary enlistment rate that was 40% higher than those drafted.[171]
Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. White servicemen sometimes showed a lighthearted respect toward Native American comrades by calling them "chief". The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. "The war", said the U.S. Indian Commissioner in 1945, "caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of the reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-being of tribal members.[172] The most significant of these changes was the opportunity—as a result of wartime labor shortages—to find well-paying work in cities, and many people relocated to urban areas, particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the defense industry.
There were also losses as a result of the war. For instance, a total of 1,200 Pueblo men served in World War II; only about half came home alive. In addition, many more Navajo served as code talkers for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although cryptographically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.
Self-determination
Military service and urban residency contributed to the rise of American Indian activism, particularly after the 1960s and the
Through the mid-1970s, conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence. A notable late 20th-century event was the
Indian activists from around the country joined them at Pine Ridge, and the occupation became a symbol of rising American Indian identity and power. Federal law enforcement officials and the national guard cordoned off the town, and the two sides had a standoff for 71 days. During much gunfire, one
In June 1975, two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight, and killed at close range. The AIM activist Leonard Peltier was sentenced in 1976 to two consecutive terms of life in prison for the FBI deaths.[174]
In 1968, the government enacted the
Tribal colleges
Navajo Community College, now called Diné College, the first tribal college, was founded in Tsaile, Arizona, in 1968 and accredited in 1979. Tensions immediately arose between two philosophies: one that the tribal colleges should have the same criteria, curriculum and procedures for educational quality as mainstream colleges, the other that the faculty and curriculum should be closely adapted to the particular historical culture of the tribe. There was a great deal of turnover, exacerbated by very tight budgets.[177] In 1994, the U.S. Congress passed legislation recognizing the tribal colleges as land-grant colleges, which provided opportunities for large-scale funding. Thirty-two tribal colleges in the United States belong to the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. By the early 21st century, tribal nations had also established numerous language revival programs in their schools.
In addition, Native American activism has led major universities across the country to establish Native American studies programs and departments, increasing awareness of the strengths of Indian cultures, providing opportunities for academics, and deepening research on history and cultures in the United States. Native Americans have entered academia; journalism and media; politics at local, state and federal levels; and public service, for instance, influencing medical research and policy to identify issues related to American Indians.
21st century
In 2009, an "apology to Native Peoples of the United States" was included in the Defense Appropriations Act. It stated that the U.S. "apologizes on behalf of the people of the United States to all Native Peoples for the many instances of violence, maltreatment, and neglect inflicted on Native Peoples by citizens of the United States".[178]
In 2013, jurisdiction over persons who were not tribal members under the
Migration of Native Americans to urban areas continued to grow up from 8% in 1940 to 45% in 1970 and up to 70% in 2012. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Phoenix, Tulsa, Minneapolis, Denver, Albuquerque, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles, and Rapid City. Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs, and gangs were common problems that Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address.[181] Grassroots efforts to support urban Indigenous populations have also taken place, as in the case of Bringing the Circle Together in Los Angeles.
In 2020, Congress passed a law to transition the management of the
Demographics
According to the 2020 census, the U.S. population was 331.4 million. Of this, 3.7 million people, or 1.1 percent, reported American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry alone. In addition, 2.2 million people (0.6 percent), reported American Indian or Alaska Native in combination with one or more other races.[183]
The definition of American Indian or Alaska Native used in the 2010 census was as follows:
According to Office of Management and Budget, "American Indian or Alaska Native" refers to a person having origins in any of the original peoples of North and South America (including Central America) and who maintains tribal affiliation or community attachment.[184]
The 2010 census permitted respondents to self-identify as being of one or more races. Self-identification dates from the census of 1960; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by the opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race was introduced in 2000.[185] If American Indian or Alaska Native was selected, the form requested the individual provide the name of the "enrolled or principal tribe".
Population since 1880
Censuses counted around 345,000 Native Americans in 1880 (including 33,000 in Alaska and 80,000 in Oklahoma, back then known as Indian Territory), around 274,000 in 1890 (including 25,500 in Alaska), 362,500 in 1930 and 366,500 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states and Alaska. Native American population rebounded sharply from 1950, when they numbered 377,273; it reached 551,669 in 1960, 827,268 in 1970, with an annual growth rate of 5%, four times the national average.[186] Total spending on Native Americans averaged $38 million a year in the late 1920s, dropping to a low of $23 million in 1933, and returning to $38 million in 1940.[169]
State/Territory | 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | 1920 | 1930 | 1940 | 1950 | 1960 | 1970 | 1980 | 1990 | 2000 | 2010 | 2020 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alabama | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 0.7% |
Alaska | 98.7% | 79.1% | 46.5% | 39.4% | 48.3% | 50.6% | 44.8% | 26.3% | 19.1% | 16.8% | 16.0% | 15.6% | 15.6% | 14.8% | 21.9% |
Arizona | 37.5% | 34.0% | 21.5% | 14.3% | 9.9% | 10.0% | 11.0% | 8.8% | 6.4% | 5.4% | 5.6% | 5.6% | 5.0% | 4.6% | 6.3% |
Arkansas | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.7% | 0.8% | 0.9% |
California | 2.4% | 1.4% | 1.0% | 0.7% | 0.5% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.5% | 0.9% | 0.8% | 1.0% | 1.0% | 1.6% |
Colorado | 1.4% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 1.0% | 1.1% | 1.3% |
Connecticut | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% |
Delaware | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.5% | 0.5% |
Florida | 0.3% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.4% |
Georgia | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.5% |
Hawaii | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.5% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.3% |
Idaho | 10.0% | 4.8% | 2.6% | 1.1% | 0.7% | 0.8% | 0.7% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 1.1% | 1.4% | 1.4% | 1.4% | 1.4% |
Illinois | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.8% |
Indiana | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% |
Iowa | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% |
Kansas | 0.2% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.7% | 0.9% | 0.9% | 1.0% | 1.1% |
Kentucky | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% |
Louisiana | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.7% | 0.7% |
Maine | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 0.6% | 0.6% |
Maryland | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% |
Massachusetts | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% |
Michigan | 1.1% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.6% | 0.6% | 0.6% |
Minnesota | 1.1% | 0.8% | 0.5% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 0.9% | 1.1% | 1.1% | 1.1% | 1.2% |
Mississippi | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% |
Missouri | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.5% |
Montana | 38.3% | 7.8% | 4.7% | 0.8% | 2.0% | 2.8% | 3.0% | 2.8% | 3.1% | 3.9% | 4.7% | 6.0% | 6.2% | 6.3% | 9.3% |
Nebraska | 1.0% | 0.6% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 1.2% | 1.2% |
Nevada | 13.9% | 10.9% | 12.3% | 6.4% | 6.3% | 5.3% | 4.3% | 3.1% | 2.3% | 1.6% | 1.7% | 1.6% | 1.3% | 1.2% | 1.4% |
New Hampshire | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% |
New Jersey | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.6% |
New Mexico | 23.2% | 9.4% | 6.7% | 6.3% | 5.4% | 6.8% | 6.5% | 6.2% | 5.9% | 7.2% | 8.1% | 8.9% | 9.5% | 9.4% | 12.4% |
New York | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.7% |
North Carolina | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 0.1% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 1.1% | 1.2% | 1.2% | 1.3% | 1.2% |
North Dakota | 13.0% | 4.3% | 2.2% | 1.1% | 1.0% | 1.2% | 1.6% | 1.7% | 1.9% | 2.3% | 3.1% | 4.1% | 4.9% | 5.4% | 7.2% |
South Dakota | 20.6% | 5.7% | 5.0% | 3.3% | 2.6% | 3.2% | 3.6% | 3.6% | 3.8% | 4.9% | 6.5% | 7.3% | 8.3% | 8.8% | 11.1% |
Ohio | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% |
Oklahoma | 100.0% | 24.9% | 8.2% | 4.5% | 2.8% | 3.9% | 2.7% | 2.4% | 2.8% | 3.8% | 5.6% | 8.0% | 7.9% | 8.6% | 16.0% |
Oregon | 3.5% | 1.6% | 1.2% | 0.8% | 0.6% | 0.5% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 1.0% | 1.4% | 1.3% | 1.4% | 4.4% |
Pennsylvania | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% |
Rhode Island | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.6% | 0.7% |
South Carolina | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% |
Tennessee | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.4% |
Texas | 0.1% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.7% | 1.0% |
Utah | 0.9% | 1.6% | 0.9% | 0.8% | 0.6% | 0.6% | 0.7% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 1.1% | 1.3% | 1.4% | 1.3% | 1.2% | 1.3% |
Vermont | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% |
Virginia | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.5% |
Washington | 20.8% | 3.1% | 1.9% | 1.0% | 0.7% | 0.7% | 0.7% | 0.6% | 0.7% | 1.0% | 1.5% | 1.7% | 1.6% | 1.5% | 4.1% |
West Virginia | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% |
Wisconsin | 0.8% | 0.6% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 1.0% | 1.0% |
Wyoming | 9.6% | 2.9% | 1.8% | 1.0% | 0.7% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 1.1% | 1.2% | 1.5% | 1.5% | 2.1% | 2.3% | 2.4% | 4.8% |
Washington, D.C. | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.0% | 0.1% | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.5% |
Puerto Rico | 0.4% | 0.5% | 0.5% | ||||||||||||
United States | 0.7% | 0.4% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.3% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.4% | 0.6% | 0.8% | 0.9% | 0.9% | 1.1% |
Population distribution
78% of Native Americans live outside a reservation. Full-blood individuals are more likely to live on a reservation than mixed-blood individuals. The
Urban migration
As of 2012, 70% of Native Americans live in urban areas, up from 45% in 1970 and 8% in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, and Los Angeles. Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs are common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address.[181]
Population by tribal grouping
Below are numbers for U.S. citizens self-identifying to selected tribal groupings, according to the 2010 U.S. census.[196]
Tribal grouping | Tribal flag | Tribal seal | American Indian & Alaska Native Alone one tribal grouping reported | American Indian & Alaska Native Alone more than one tribal grouping reported | American Indian & Alaska Native Mixed one tribal grouping reported | American Indian & Alaska Native Mixed more than one tribal grouping reported | American Indian & Alaska Native tribal grouping alone or mixed in any combination |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | 2,879,638 | 52,610 | 2,209,267 | 79,064 | 5,220,579 | ||
Apache | 63,193 | 6,501 | 33,303 | 8,813 | 111,810 | ||
Arapaho | 8,014 | 388 | 2,084 | 375 | 10,861 | ||
Blackfeet | 27,279 | 4,519 | 54,109 | 19,397 | 105,304 | ||
Canadian & French American Indian | 6,433 | 618 | 6,981 | 790 | 14,822 | ||
Central American Indian | 15,882 | 572 | 10,865 | 525 | 27,844 | ||
Cherokee | 284,247 | 16,216 | 468,082 | 50,560 | 819,105 | ||
Cheyenne (Northern and Southern) |
11,375 | 1,118 | 5,311 | 1,247 | 19,051 | ||
Chickasaw | 27,973 | 2,233 | 19,220 | 2,852 | 52,278 | ||
Chippewa
|
112,757 | 2,645 | 52,091 | 3,249 | 170,742 | ||
Choctaw | 103,910 | 6,398 | 72,101 | 13,355 | 195,764 | ||
Colville
|
8,114 | 200 | 2,148 | 87 | 10,549 | ||
Comanche | 12,284 | 1,187 | 8,131 | 1,728 | 23,330 | ||
Cree | 2,211 | 739 | 4,023 | 1,010 | 7,983 | ||
Creek
|
48,352 | 4,596 | 30,618 | 4,766 | 88,332 | ||
Crow
|
10,332 | 528 | 3,309 | 1,034 | 15,203 | ||
Delaware (Lenape) | 7,843 | 372 | 9,439 | 610 | 18,264 | ||
Hopi | 12,580 | 2,054 | 3,013 | 680 | 18,327 | ||
Houma | 8,169 | 71 | 2,438 | 90 | 10,768 | ||
Iroquois | 40,570 | 1,891 | 34,490 | 4,051 | 81,002 | ||
Kiowa | 9,437 | 918 | 2,947 | 485 | 13,787 | ||
Lumbee | 62,306 | 651 | 10,039 | 695 | 73,691 | ||
Menominee | 8,374 | 253 | 2,330 | 176 | 11,133 | ||
Mexican American Indian | 121,221 | 2,329 | 49,670 | 2,274 | 175,494 | ||
Navajo
|
286,731 | 8,285 | 32,918 | 4,195 | 332,129 | ||
Osage | 8,938 | 1,125 | 7,090 | 1,423 | 18,576 | ||
Ottawa
|
7,272 | 776 | 4,274 | 711 | 13,033 | ||
Paiute[197] | 9,340 | 865 | 3,135 | 427 | 13,767 | ||
Pima
|
22,040 | 1,165 | 3,116 | 334 | 26,655 | ||
Potawatomi | 20,412 | 462 | 12,249 | 648 | 33,771 | ||
Pueblo
|
49,695 | 2,331 | 9,568 | 946 | 62,540 | ||
Puget Sound Salish
|
14,320 | 215 | 5,540 | 185 | 20,260 | ||
Seminole | 14,080 | 2,368 | 12,447 | 3,076 | 31,971 | ||
Shoshone | 7,852 | 610 | 3,969 | 571 | 13,002 | ||
Sioux | 112,176 | 4,301 | 46,964 | 6,669 | 170,110 | ||
South American Indian | 20,901 | 479 | 25,015 | 838 | 47,233 | ||
Spanish American Indian | 13,460 | 298 | 6,012 | 181 | 19,951 | ||
Tohono O'odham
|
19,522 | 725 | 3,033 | 198 | 23,478 | ||
Ute | 7,435 | 785 | 2,802 | 469 | 11,491 | ||
Yakama
|
8,786 | 310 | 2,207 | 224 | 11,527 | ||
Yaqui
|
21,679 | 1,516 | 8,183 | 1,217 | 32,595 | ||
Yuman
|
7,727 | 551 | 1,642 | 169 | 10,089 | ||
All other American Indian tribes | 270,141 | 12,606 | 135,032 | 11,850 | 429,629 | ||
American Indian tribes, not specified | 131,943 | 117 | 102,188 | 72 | 234,320 | ||
Alaska Native tribes, specified | 98,892 | 4,194 | 32,992 | 2,772 | 138,850 | ||
Alaskan Athabaskans | 15,623 | 804 | 5,531 | 526 | 22,484 | ||
Aleut
|
11,920 | 723 | 6,108 | 531 | 19,282 | ||
Inupiat
|
24,859 | 877 | 7,051 | 573 | 33,360 | ||
Tlingit-Haida | 15,256 | 859 | 9,331 | 634 | 26,080 | ||
Tsimshian | 2,307 | 240 | 1,010 | 198 | 3,755 | ||
Yup'ik | 28,927 | 691 | 3,961 | 310 | 33,889 | ||
Alaska Native tribes, not specified | 19,731 | 173 | 9,896 | 133 | 29,933 | ||
American Indian or Alaska Native tribes, not specified | 693,709 | no data | 852,253 | 1 | 1,545,963 |
Tribal sovereignty
There are 573
Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the U.S. federal government's claim to recognize the "sovereignty" of Native American peoples falls short, given that the United States wishes to govern Native American peoples and treat them as subject to U.S. law.[201] Such advocates contend that full respect for Native American sovereignty would require the U.S. government to deal with Native American peoples in the same manner as any other sovereign nation, handling matters related to relations with Native Americans through the Secretary of State, rather than the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The Bureau of Indian Affairs reports on its website that its "responsibility is the administration and management of 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km2) of land held in trust by the United States for American Indians, Indian tribes, and Alaska Natives".[202] Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights believe that it is condescending for such lands to be considered "held in trust" and regulated in any fashion by any entity other than their own tribes.
Some tribal groups have been unable to document the cultural continuity required for federal recognition. To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did.[203] The Muwekma Ohlone of the San Francisco Bay Area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition.[204] Many of the smaller eastern tribes, long considered remnants of extinct peoples, have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. Several tribes in Virginia and North Carolina have gained state recognition. Federal recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining federal recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive genealogical proof of tribal descent and continuity of the tribe as a culture.
In July 2000, the
As of 2004, various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to gain control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as coal and uranium in the West.[207][208]
The State of
In the state of Virginia, Native Americans face a unique problem. Until 2017 Virginia previously had no federally recognized tribes but the state had recognized eight. This is related historically to the greater impact of disease and warfare on the Virginia Indian populations, as well as their intermarriage with Europeans and Africans. Some people confused ancestry with culture, but groups of Virginia Indians maintained their cultural continuity. Most of their early reservations were ended under the pressure of early European settlement.
Some historians also note the problems of Virginia Indians in establishing documented continuity of identity, due to the work of
Plecker, a
As of 2000[update], the largest groups in the United States by population were
Civil rights movement
The
In the
Our nation was born in genocide when it embraced the doctrine that the original American, the Indian, was an inferior race. Even before there were large numbers of Negroes on our shores, the scar of racial hatred had already disfigured colonial society. From the sixteenth century forward, blood flowed in battles over racial supremacy. We are perhaps the only nation which tried as a matter of national policy to wipe out its Indigenous population. Moreover, we elevated that tragic experience into a noble crusade. Indeed, even today we have not permitted ourselves to reject or to feel remorse for this shameful episode. Our literature, our films, our drama, our folklore all exalt it.[219]
Native Americans would then actively participate and support the NAACP, and the civil rights movement.
We have joined the Poor People's Campaign because most of our families, tribes, and communities number among those suffering most in this country. We are not begging. We are demanding what is rightfully ours. This is no more than the right to have a decent life in our own communities. We need guaranteed jobs, guaranteed income, housing, schools, economic development, but most important- we want them on our own terms. Our chief spokesman in the federal government, the
Department of Interior, has failed us. In fact it began failing us from its very beginning. The Interior Department began failing us because it was built upon and operates under a racist, immoral, paternalistic and colonialistic system. There is no way to improve upon racism, immorality and colonialism; it can only be done away with. The system and power structure serving Indian peoples is a sickness which has grown to epidemic proportions. The Indian system is sick. Paternalism is the virus and the secretary of the Interior is the carrier.
Contemporary issues
Native American struggles amid poverty to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a vulnerability to and disproportionately high rate of alcoholism:[225]
It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of diabetes, alcoholism, tuberculosis, suicide, and other health conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all other Americans.
— U.S. Commission on Civil Rights[226] (September 2004)
Recent studies also point to rising rates of stroke,[227] heart disease,[228] and diabetes[229] in the Native American population.
Societal discrimination and racism
Native Americans have been subjected to discrimination for centuries. In response to being labeled "merciless Indian savages" in the Declaration of Independence, Simon Moya-Smith, culture editor at Indian Country Today, states, "Any holiday that would refer to my people in such a repugnant, racist manner is certainly not worth celebrating. [July Fourth] is a day we celebrate our resiliency, our culture, our languages, our children and we mourn the millions — literally millions — of indigenous people who have died as a consequence of American imperialism."[230]
In a study conducted in 2006–2007, non-Native Americans admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. This is largely due to the number of Native Americans having dwindled since white settler colonialism, while those who survived were forcibly moved into reservations; both of these factors were referenced by Adolf Hitler in 1928 when he admiringly stated the US had "gunned down the millions of Redskins to a few hundred thousand, and now keep the modest remnant under observation in a cage".[231][232] While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face prejudice, mistreatment, and inequality in the broader society.[233]
Affirmative action issues
Federal contractors and subcontractors, such as businesses and educational institutions, are legally required to adopt
Self-reporting opens the door to "box checking" by people who, despite not having a substantial relationship to Native American culture, innocently or fraudulently check the box for Native American.[238]
The difficulties that Native Americans face in the workforce, for example, a lack of promotions and wrongful terminations are attributed to racial stereotypes and implicit biases. Native American business owners are seldom offered auxiliary resources that are crucial for entrepreneurial success.[236]
Native American mascots in sports
American Indian activists in the United States and Canada have criticized the use of Native American mascots in sports, as perpetuating stereotypes. This is considered cultural appropriation. There has been a steady decline in the number of secondary school and college teams using such names, images, and mascots. Some tribal team names have been approved by the tribe in question, such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida's approving use of their name for the teams of Florida State University.[239][240]
Among professional teams, the
Historical depictions in art
Native Americans have been depicted by
In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in
For years, Native people on U.S. television were relegated to secondary, subordinate roles. During the years of the series
The 1998 film
Differences in terminology
The most common of the modern terms to refer to Indigenous peoples of the United States are Indians, American Indians, and Native Americans. Up to the early to mid 18th century, the term Americans was not applied to people of European heritage in North America. Instead it was equivalent to the term Indians. As people of European heritage began using the term Americans to refer instead to themselves, the word Indians became historically the most often employed term.[257]
The term Indians, long laden with racist stereotypes, began to be widely replaced in the 1960s with the term Native Americans, which recognized the Indigeneity of the people who first made the Americas home. But as the term Native Americans became popular, the American Indian Movement saw pejorative connotations in the term native and reappropriated the term Indian, seeing it as witness to the history of violence against the many nations that lived in the Americas before European arrival.[258]
The term Native American was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the
The term Amerindian, a
During World War II, draft boards typically classified American Indians from Virginia as Negroes.[265][266]
In 1995, a plurality of Indigenous Americans, however, preferred the term American Indian
Criticism of the neologism Native American comes from diverse sources. Russell Means, an Oglala Lakota activist, opposed the term Native American because he believed it was imposed by the government without the consent of Native people.[268]
A 1995 U.S. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred American Indian to Native American.
Other commonly used terms are First Americans, First Nations, and Native Peoples.[270]
Gambling industry
Because
Financial services
Numerous tribes around the country have entered the financial services market including the
Crime on reservations
Prosecution of serious crime, historically endemic on reservations,[274][275] was required by the 1885 Major Crimes Act,[276] 18 U.S.C. §§1153, 3242, and court decisions to be investigated by the federal government, usually the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and prosecuted by United States Attorneys of the United States federal judicial district in which the reservation lies.[277][278][279][280][281]
A December 13, 2009 New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone.[282] Navajo country recently reported 225 gangs in its territory.[283]
As of 2012, a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women and Alaskan native women. According to the Department of Justice, 1 in 3 Native women have suffered rape or attempted rape, more than twice the national rate.
Barriers to economic development
Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle, as they are often located on reservations isolated from the main economic centers of the country. The estimated 2.1 million Native Americans are the most impoverished of all ethnic groups. According to the
The barriers to
- Lack of access to capital
- Lack of human capital (education, skills, technical expertise) and the means to develop it
- Reservations lack effective planning
- Reservations are poor in natural resources
- Reservations have natural resources but lack sufficient control over them
- Reservations are disadvantaged by their distance from markets and the high costs of transportation
- Tribes cannot persuade investors to locate on reservations because of intense competition from non-Native American communities
- The Bureau of Indian Affairs is inept, corrupt or uninterested in reservation development
- Tribal politicians and bureaucrats are inept or corrupt
- On-reservation factionalism destroys stability in tribal decisions
- The instability of tribal government keeps outsiders from investing. The lack of international recognition Native American tribal sovereignty weakens their political-economic legitimacy.[293] (Many tribes adopted constitutions by the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act model, with two-year terms for elected positions of chief and council members deemed too short by the authors for getting things done)
- Entrepreneurial skills and experience are scarce
A major barrier to development is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience within
Discourse in Native American economic development
Some scholars argue that the existing theories and practices of economic development are not suitable for Native American communities—given the lifestyle, economic, and cultural differences, as well as the unique history of Native American-U.S. relations.[293] Little economic development research has been conducted on Native American communities. The federal government fails to consider place-based issues of American Indian poverty by generalizing the demographic.[293][295] In addition, the concept of economic development threatens to upend the multidimensionality of Native American culture.[293] The dominance of federal government involvement in Indigenous developmental activities perpetuates and exacerbates the salvage paradigm.[293]
Land ownership challenges
A common landownership issue on reservations is checkerboarding, where tribal land is interspersed with land owned by the federal government on behalf of Natives, individually owned plots, and land owned by non-Native individuals. This prevents Tribal governments from securing plots of land large enough for economic development or agricultural uses.[296] Because reservation land is owned "in trust" by the federal government, individuals living on reservations cannot build equity in their homes. This bars Native Americans from getting loans, as there is nothing that a bank can collect if the loan is not paid. Past efforts to encourage land ownership (such as the Dawes Act) resulted in a net loss of Tribal land. After they were familiarized with their smallholder status, Native American landowners were lifted of trust restrictions and their land would get transferred back to them, contingent on a transactional fee to the federal government. The transfer fee discouraged Native American land ownership, with 65% of tribal-owned land being sold to non-Native Americans by the 1920s.[297] Activists against property rights point to historical evidence of communal ownership of land and resources by tribes. They claim that because of this history, property rights are foreign to Natives and have no place in the modern reservation system. Those in favor of property rights cite examples of tribes negotiating with colonial communities or other tribes about fishing and hunting rights in an area.[298] Land ownership was also a challenge because of the different definitions of land that the Natives and the Europeans had.[299] Most Native American tribes thought of property rights more as "borrowing" the land, while those from Europe thought of land as individual property.[300]
Native land owned by individual Native Americans sometimes cannot be developed because of fractionalization. Fractionalization occurs when a landowner dies, and their land is inherited by their children, but not subdivided. This means that one parcel might be owned by 50 different individuals. A majority of those holding interest must agree to any proposal to develop the land, and establishing this consent is time-consuming, cumbersome, and sometimes impossible.[citation needed]
Land ownership and bureaucratic challenges in historical context
State-level efforts such as the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act were attempts to contain tribal land in Native American hands. However, more bureaucratic decisions only expanded the bureaucracy. The knowledge disconnect between the decision-making bureaucracy and Native American stakeholders resulted in ineffective development efforts.[295][297]
Traditional Native American entrepreneurship does not prioritize profit maximization; rather, business transactions must align with Native American social and cultural values.[301] In response to Indigenous business philosophy, the federal government created policies that aimed to formalize their business practices, which undermined the Native American status quo.[297] Additionally, legal disputes interfered with tribal land leasing, which were settled with the verdict against tribal sovereignty.[302]
Often, bureaucratic overseers of development are far removed from Native American communities and lack the knowledge and understanding to develop plans or make resource allocation decisions.[295] The top-down heavy involvement in developmental operations, does not mitigate incentives for bureaucrats to act in their self-interest. Such instances include reports that exaggerate results.[295]
Geographic poverty
While Native American urban poverty is attributed to hiring and workplace discrimination in a heterogeneous setting,[236] reservation and trust land poverty rates are endogenous to deserted opportunities in isolated regions.[303]
Trauma
Historical trauma
Impacts of intergenerational trauma
American Indian youth have higher rates of substance and alcohol use deaths than the general population.[307] Many American Indians can trace the beginning of their substance and alcohol use to a traumatic event related to their offender's own substance use.[308] A person's substance use can be described as a defense mechanism against the user's emotions and trauma.[309] For American Indians alcoholism is a symptom of trauma passed from generation to generation and influenced by oppressive behaviors and policies by the dominant Euro-American society.[310] Boarding schools were made to "Kill the Indian, Save the man".[311] Shame among American Indians can be attributed to the hundreds of years of oppression and annihilation.[309]
Food insecurity
Studies are being conducted which show Native Americans often experience higher rates of food insecurity than other racial groups in the US. The studies do not focus on the overall picture of Native American households, however, and tend to focus rather on smaller sample sizes in the available research.[312] In a study that evaluated the level of food insecurity among White, Asian, Black, Hispanic and Indigenous Americans: it was reported that over the 10-year span of 2000–2010, Indigenous people were reported to be one of the highest at-risk groups from a lack of access to adequate food, reporting anywhere from 20% to 30% of households suffering from this type of insecurity. There are many reasons that contribute to the issue, but overall, the biggest lie in high food costs on or near reservations, lack of access to well-paying jobs, and predisposition to health issues relating to obesity and mental health.[313]
Society, language, and culture
The culture of Pre-Columbian North America is usually defined by the concept of the culture area, namely a geographical region where shared cultural traits occur. The northwest culture area, for example, shared common traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, and large villages or towns and a hierarchical social structure.
Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans.[315]
European colonization of the Americas had a major impact on Native American cultures through what is known as the
The impact of the Columbian exchange was not entirely negative, however. For example, the re-introduction of the horse to North America allowed the
The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th century and Native Americans' learning to use them greatly altered the Native Americans' cultures, including changing the way in which they hunted large game. Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth by many tribes.
In the early years, as Native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages.
Ethno-linguistic classification
The
Words used in English have been
Language education
To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where an Indigenous American language is the medium of instruction. For example, the Cherokee Nation initiated a 10-year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home.[319] This plan was part of an ambitious goal that, in 50 years, will result in 80% or more of the Cherokee people being fluent in the language.[320] The Cherokee Preservation Foundation has invested $3 million in opening schools, training teachers, and developing curricula for language education, as well as initiating community gatherings where the language can be actively used.[320] Formed in 2006, the Kituwah Preservation & Education Program (KPEP) on the Qualla Boundary focuses on language immersion programs for children from birth to fifth grade, developing cultural resources for the general public and community language programs to foster the Cherokee language among adults.[321]
There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in
Indigenous foodways
Historical diets of Native Americans differed dramatically from region to region. Different peoples might have relied more heavily on agriculture, horticulture, hunting, fishing, or gathering wild plants and fungi. Tribes developed diets best suited to their environments.
Alaskan Natives prepared and preserved dried and smoked meat and fish.Pacific Northwest tribes crafted seafaring dugout canoes 40–50 feet (12–15 m) long for fishing. In the
The
The
Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans.[329]
Early farmers commonly used tools such as the
Religion
Native American religious practices, beliefs, and philosophies differ widely across tribes. These spiritualities, practices, beliefs, and philosophies may accompany adherence to another faith or can represent a person's primary religious, faith, spiritual or philosophical identity. Much Native American spirituality exists in a tribal-cultural continuum, and as such cannot be easily separated from tribal identity itself.
Cultural spiritual, philosophical, and faith ways differ from tribe to tribe and person to person. Some tribes include the use of sacred leaves and herbs such as tobacco,
The
Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the
The eagle feather law (Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations) stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans.
Gender roles
Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have retained traditional expectations of sexuality and gender and continue to do so in contemporary life despite continued and on-going colonial pressures.[334]
Whether a particular tribe is predominantly
Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her. In matrilineal cultures the mother's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children's clan, as they still belong to their own mother's clan. Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother's line and chiefs have historically been selected on the recommendations of women elders, who could also disapprove of a chief.[335]
In the
In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while, as life-givers, women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families (and future of the tribe). Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make all the clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling.[337] In matriarchal and egalitarian nations, the gender roles are usually not so clear-cut and are even less so in the modern era.[334]
At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.[315]
Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota girls are encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight.[338] Though fighting in war has mostly been left to the boys and men, occasionally women have fought as well – both in battles and in defense of the home – especially if the tribe was severely threatened.[339]
Modern education
As of 2020[update] 90% of Native American school-aged children attend public schools operated by school districts.[340] Tribally-operated schools under contracts/grants with the Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) and direct BIE-operated schools take about 8% of Native American students,[341] including students who live in very rural remote areas.[340]
In 1978, 215,000 (78%) of Native Americans attended school district-operated public schools, 47,000 (17%) attended schools directly operated by the BIA, 2,500 (1%) attended tribal or other schools that contracted with the BIA, and the remaining 9,000 (3%) attended missionary schools for Native American children or other private schools.[342]
Sports
Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Jim Thorpe, Lewis Tewanima, Joe Hipp, Notah Begay III, Chris Wondolowski, Jacoby Ellsbury, Joba Chamberlain, Kyle Lohse, Sam Bradford, Jack Brisco, Tommy Morrison, Billy Mills, Angel Goodrich, Shoni Schimmel, and Kyrie Irving are well known professional athletes.
Team sports
Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse, stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict. The Choctaw called it isitoboli ("Little Brother of War");[343] the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es ("men hit a rounded object"). There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.[344]
The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal (either a single post or net) to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around 200 feet (61 m) apart to about 2 miles (3.2 km); in lacrosse the field is 110 yards (100 m).
Individual sports
Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone-shaped disk that was about 1–2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a 200-foot (61 m) corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it.
U.S. Olympics
In the 1912 Olympics, Thorpe could run the 100-yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the 220 in 21.8 seconds, the 440 in 51.8 seconds, the 880 in 1:57, the mile in 4:35, the 120-yard high hurdles in 15 seconds, and the 220-yard low hurdles in 24 seconds.[346] He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high-jump 6 ft 5 in.[346] He could pole vault 11 feet (3.4 m), put the shot 47 ft 9 in (14.55 m), throw the javelin 163 feet (50 m), and throw the discus 136 feet (41 m).[346] Thorpe entered the U.S. Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon.
Ellison Brown, of the Narragansett people from Rhode Island, better known as "Tarzan" Brown, won two Boston Marathons (1936, 1939) and competed on the United States Olympic team in the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany, but did not finish due to injury. He qualified for the 1940 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland, but the games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II.
Billy Mills, a Lakota and USMC officer, won the gold medal in the 10,000-meter run at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U.S. Olympic trials.
Literature
Native American literature, composed of both oral literature and written literature, has a long history. Relevantly, it is considered a series of literatures reflecting the varied traditions and histories of different tribes. Modern authors cover a wide range of genres and include Tommy Orange, Joy Harjo, Louise Erdrich, Stephen Graham Jones, Rebecca Roanhorse, Tommy Pico, and many more.
Music
Traditional Native American music is almost entirely
Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music such as
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the
Art
The Iroquois, living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries.[352]
The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually.[357]
Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include
Interracial relations
Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships".[362][363]
Assimilation
European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and the creation of the countries which currently exist in the Americas. Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions".[364]
Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy.[365] Marriages took place in English, Spanish, French, and Russian colonies between Native Americans and Europeans though Native American women were also the victims of rape.[366]
There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were.
Blackbird wrote:
The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of 'Arbor Croche' is yet living in 1897. And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes.[365]
The U.S. government had two purposes when making land agreements with Native Americans: to open up more land for white settlement,[365] and to "ease tensions" (in other words assimilate Native people to Eurasian social ways) between whites and Native Americans by forcing the Native Americans to use the land in the same way as did the whites—for subsistence farms.[365] The government used a variety of strategies to achieve these goals; many treaties required Native Americans to become farmers in order to keep their land.[365] Government officials often did not translate the documents which Native Americans were forced to sign, and native chiefs often had little or no idea what they were signing.[365]
For a Native American man to marry a white woman, he had to get consent of her parents, as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home".
As European American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men. For instance,
European enslavement
The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members.
In Colonial America, slavery soon became racialized, with those enslaved by the institution consisting of ethnic groups (non-Christian Native Americans and Africans) who were foreign to the Christian, European colonists. The House of Burgesses define the terms of slavery in Virginia in 1705:
All servants imported and brought into the Country ... who were not Christians in their native Country ... shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion ... shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resists his master ... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction ... the master shall be free of all punishment ... as if such accident never happened.
— Virginia General Assembly declaration, 1705[375]
The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around 1750. It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the
Native American and African relations
African- and Native- Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves.[378]
Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans.[379] The "Catawaba tribe in 1752 showed great anger and bitter resentment when an African American came among them as a trader".[379] To gain favor with Europeans, the Cherokee exhibited the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans.[379] Because of European fears of a unified revolt of Native Americans and African Americans, the colonists tried to encourage hostility between the ethnic groups: "Whites sought to convince Native Americans that African Americans worked against their best interests."[380] In 1751, South Carolina law stated:
The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided.[381]
In addition, in 1758 the governor of South Carolina James Glen wrote:
it has always been the policy of this government to create an aversion in them [Indians] to Negroes.[382]
Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th-century
According to the National Park Service, "Native Americans, during the transitional period of Africans becoming the primary race enslaved, were enslaved at the same time and shared a common experience of enslavement. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried."[386][387] Because of a shortage of men due to warfare, many tribes encouraged marriage between the two groups, to create stronger, healthier children from the unions.[388]
In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or
While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the
Race, ethnicity, and citizenship
Native American identity is determined by the tribal community that the individual or group is seeking to identify with.
In the 2010 Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their "race" was Native American (including Alaska Native).
Some tribes (particularly some in the
Historically, numerous Native Americans
Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice interracial or intertribal marriage among the different tribes and non-Natives, resulting in an ever-declining proportion of Indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity (tribes often count only the Indian blood from their own tribal background in the enrollment process, disregarding intertribal heritages).[400] Some tribes disenroll those with low blood quantum. Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in Native American reservation politics.[401][402]
Tribal enrollment
Requirements for tribal citizenship vary by tribe, but are generally based on who one's parents and grandparents are, as known and documented by community members and tribal records. Among the tribal nations, qualification for enrolling those who were not logged at birth by their parents may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood" (or the "
Tribal rules regarding the recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes also vary, but most do not allow citizenship in multiple tribes at once. For those that do, usually citizens consider one of their citizenships primary, and their other heritage to be "descent". Federally recognized tribes do not accept genetic ethnicity percentages results as appropriate evidence of Native American identity, as they cannot indicate specific tribe, or even whether or not someone is Native American. Unless requested for a paternity test, they do not advise applicants to submit such things.[399]
To receive tribal services, a Native American must be a citizen of (or enrolled in) a
Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this is the
Increased self-identification
Since the 2000 United States census, people may identify as being of more than one race.[184] Since the 1960s, the number of people claiming Native American ancestry has grown significantly and, by the 2000 census, the number had more than doubled. Sociologists attribute this dramatic change to "ethnic shifting" or "ethnic shopping"; they believe that it reflects a willingness of people to question their birth identities and adopt new ethnicities which they find more compatible.
The author Jack Hitt writes:
The reaction from lifelong Indians runs the gamut. It is easy to find Native Americans who denounce many of these new Indians as members of the wannabe tribe. But it is also easy to find Indians like Clem Iron Wing, an elder among the Lakota, who sees this flood of new ethnic claims as magnificent, a surge of Indians 'trying to come home.' Those Indians who ridicule Iron Wing's lax sense of tribal membership have retrofitted the old genocidal system of blood quantum—measuring racial purity by blood—into the new standard for real Indianness, a choice rich with paradox.[185]
Journalist Mary Annette Pember (Ojibwe) writes that non-Natives identifying with Native American identity may be a result of a person's increased interest in genealogy, the romanticization of what they believe the cultures to be, and family lore of Native American ancestors in the distant past. However, there are different issues if a person wants to pursue enrollment as a citizen of a tribal nation. Different tribes have different requirements for citizenship. Often those who live as non-Natives, yet claim distant heritage, say they are simply reluctant to enroll, arguing that it is a method of control initiated by the federal government. However, it is the tribes that set their own enrollment criteria, and "the various enrollment requirements are often a hurdle that ethnic shoppers are unable to clear." Says Grayson Noley, (Choctaw), of the University of Oklahoma, "If you have to search for proof of your heritage, it probably isn't there."[403] In other cases, there are some individuals who are 100% Native American but, if all of their recent ancestors are from different tribes, blood quantum laws could result in them not meeting the citizenship criteria for any one of those individual tribes. Pember concludes:
The subjects of genuine American Indian blood, cultural connection and recognition by the community are extremely contentious issues, hotly debated throughout Indian country and beyond. The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation.[403]
Admixture and genetics
Intertribal marriage is historically common among many Native American tribes, both prior to European contact and in the present. Historically, tribal conflicts might result in the eventual adoption of, or marriages with, captives taken in warfare, with former foes becoming full members of the community. Individuals often have ancestry from more than one tribe, and this became increasingly common after so many tribes lost family members to colonial invasions bringing disease, war and massacres.[79] Bands or entire tribes were often reduced to very small numbers, and at times split or merged to form stronger communities in reaction to these pressures.[405]
Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting admixture events between Native American women and European men.[406][405]
The
Given all these factors, DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as the ethnicity admixture tests cannot distinguish among Native American tribes. They cannot even reliably indicate Native American ancestry:[411]
"Native American markers" are not found solely among Native Americans. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans, they are also found in people in other parts of the world.[411]
The only use of DNA testing by legitimate tribes is that some, such as the Meskwaki, may use DNA for paternity tests, or similar confirmation that an applicant who was not enrolled at birth is the biological child of an enrolled tribal member. It is solely about confirming or ruling out biological paternity, and has no relationship to race or ethnicity.[412][413]
African American admixtures
Gates summarized these statistics to mean that, "If you have 2 percent Native American ancestry, you had one such ancestor on your family tree five to nine generations back (150 to 270 years ago)."[414] Their findings also concluded that the most common "non-Black" mix among African Americans is English and Scots-Irish. Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.[416] Another study, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, also indicated that, despite how common these family stories are, relatively few African Americans who have these stories actually turned out to have detectable Native American ancestry.[417] A study reported in the American Journal of Human Genetics stated, "We analyzed the European genetic contribution to 10 populations of African descent in the United States (Maywood, Illinois; Detroit; New York; Philadelphia; Pittsburgh; Baltimore; Charleston, South Carolina; New Orleans; and Houston) ... mtDNA haplogroups analysis shows no evidence of a significant maternal Amerindian contribution to any of the 10 populations."[418] Despite this, some still insist that most African Americans have at least some Native American heritage.[419]
DNA
The
The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with
The most popular theory is that human settlement of the Americas occurred in stages from the
Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 gene frequencies links the
See also
- List of historical Indian reservations in the United States
- List of Indian massacres in North America
- List of Indian reservations in the United States
- List of Native American firsts
- List of Native Americans of the United States (notable Native Americans)
- Racism against Native Americans in the United States
- List of U.S. communities with Native-American majority populations
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Further reading
- Gardiner, Susannah (April 25, 2022). "Who Gets to Define Native American Art?". Smithsonian Magazine.
- Deloria, Philip J.; et al. (Spring 2018). "Unfolding Futures: Indigenous Ways of Knowing for the Twenty-First Century" (online). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Daedalus. 147 (2). Cambridge, MA, USA: MIT Press: 6–16. S2CID 57572242.
- Vigil, Kiara M. (2015). Indigenous Intellectuals: Sovereignty, Citizenship, and the American Imagination, 1880-1930. Cambridge University Press. OCLC 905969995.
- O'Brien, Jean M. (2010). Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians out of Existence in New England. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816665785.
- Dippie, Brian W. (October 25, 1991). The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and U.S. Indian Policy. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 9780700605071.
- Truettner, William H. (September 2010). Painting Indians and Building Empires in North America, 1710–1840 (1st ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 9780520266315.
- Adams, David Wallace. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience 1875–1928, University Press of Kansas, 1975. ISBN 0-7006-0838-9(pbk).
- Anderson, Owanah. Jamestown Commitment: the Episcopal Church [i.e. the Protestant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A.] and the American Indian. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 1988. 170 p. ISBN 0-88028-082-4
- Barak, Gregg, Paul Leighton, and Jeanne Flavin. Class, Race, Gender, and Crime: The Social Realities of Justice in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7425-9969-7.
- Barnes, Ian. The Historical Atlas of Native Americans. Chartwell Books, 2015. ISBN 978-0-7858-3145-7.
- Bierhorst, John. A Cry from the Earth: Music of North American Indians. ISBN 0-941270-53-X.
- Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. New York: Macmillan.
- Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (September 2014). An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States, Boston: Beacon Press.
- Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (February 2015). "Native Land and African Bodies, the Source of U.S. Capitalism", in Monthly Review, Volume 66, Number 9. Book review of Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2013)
- Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (e-CFR), Title 50: Wildlife and Fisheries Part 22-Eagle permits "Electronic Code of Federal Regulations". Ecfr.gpoaccess.gov. February 27, 2007. Archived from the original on June 10, 2007. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
- Hirschfelder, Arlene B.; Byler, Mary G.; & Dorris, Michael. Guide to research on North American Indians. American Library Association (1983). ISBN 0-8389-0353-3.
- Jones, Peter N. Respect for the Ancestors: American Indian Cultural Affiliation in the American West. Boulder, CO: Bauu Press (2005). ISBN 0-9721349-2-1.
- Josephy Jr, Alvin M. (1995). 500 Nations: An Illustrated History of North American Indians. London: Hutchinson/Pimlico. ISBN 0-09-179148-0.
- Kroeber, Alfred L. (1939). Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology.
- Nabokov, Peter, "The Intent Was Genocide" (review of Jeffrey Ostler, Surviving Genocide: Native Nations and the United States from the American Revolution to Bleeding Kansas, Yale University Press, 533 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVII, no. 11 (July 2, 2020), pp. 51–52. Writes Nabokov (p. 52): "[D]uring the formative years of our republic and beyond, there was a mounting, merciless, uncoordinated but aggressively consistent crusade to eliminate [a recurring word is "extirpate"] the native residents of the United States from their homelands by any means necessary – and those homelands were everywhere."
- Nichols, Roger L. Indians in the United States & Canada, A Comparative History. University of Nebraska Press (1998). ISBN 0-8032-8377-6.
- Pohl, Frances K. (2002). Framing America: A Social History of American Art. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 54–56, 105–106 & 110–111. ISBN 978-0-500-23792-2.
- Shanley, Kathryn Winona (1997). "The Indians America Loves to Love and Read: American Indian Identity and Cultural Appropriation". American Indian Quarterly. 21 (4): 675–702. JSTOR 1185719. Archived from the originalon March 15, 2011.
- Shanley, Kathryn Winona (2004). "The Paradox of Native American Indian Intellectualism and Literature". MELUS. 29 (3/4): 273–292. JSTOR 4141855. Archived from the originalon December 8, 2012.
- Shohat, Ella; Stam, Robert (1994). Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-06324-1.
- Sletcher, Michael, "North American Indians", in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2 vols.
- Snipp, C.M. (1989). American Indians: The first of this land. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 978-0-87154-822-1.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published), (1978–present).
- Tiller, Veronica E. (Ed.). Discover Indian Reservations USA: A Visitors' Welcome Guide. Foreword by ISBN 0-9632580-0-1.
- US Government. A Critical Bibliography on North American Indians (PDF)
- Washburn, Wilcomb E. The Indian in America (1975)
Background readings
- Wolfe, Patrick (January 1999). Settler Colonialism and the Transformation of Anthropology: The Politics and Poetics of an Ethnographic Event. Writing Past Colonialism. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0304703401.
External links
- Official website of the U.S. Department of the Interior
- Official website of the National Congress of American Indians
- American Indian Records from the National Archives and Records Administration
- Official website of the National Museum of the American Indian, part of the Smithsonian Institution
- National Indian Law Library of the Native American Rights Fund – a law library of federal Indian and tribal law