User:Grimhelm/Irish people
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* Around 800,000 people born in Ireland reside in Great Britain, with around 14,000,000 people claiming Irish ancestry.[13] |
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The Irish (
The Irish have their own customs,
.There have been many notable Irish people throughout history. After the
The population of Ireland is about 6.3 million, but it is estimated that 50 to 80 million people around the world have Irish ancestry, making the
Names
Ethnonym
The Irish people have historically been known by a variety of names, including
A variety of historical ethnic groups have inhabited the island, including the
The Scottish people take their name from the medieval Latin term for the Irish people (Scoti), which in the Middle Ages referred to the Gaelic inhabitants of both Scotia Major (Ireland) and Scotia Minor (Scotland). Later Irish mythology, Scottish mythology, and pseudohistory explained the origin of the name "Scotland" taking its name from Scota, the name given to two different mythological daughters of two different Egyptian Pharaohs from whom the Gaels traced their ancestry. This allegedly explained the name Scoti, applied by the Romans to Irish raiders, and later to the Irish invaders of Argyll and Caledonia which became known as Scotland.
Surnames
The Irish were among the first people in Europe to use surnames as we know them today.
Names that begin with "Ó"/"O'" include Ó Cheallaigh (
Other anglicised Irish surnames subsume previously distinct Gaelic families. For example, the surname "
Not all Irish surnames are Gaelic in origin. Some ultimately derive from Norse personal names, including
Origins
Ancient and medieval antecedents
Prehistoric ancestors
During the past 12,500 years of inhabitation, Ireland has witnessed some different peoples arrive on its shores. The ancient peoples of Ireland—such as the creators of the Céide Fields and Newgrange—are almost unknown. Neither their languages nor the terms they used to describe themselves have survived. As late as the middle centuries of the 1st millennium the inhabitants of Ireland did not appear to have a collective name for themselves.
Gaelic and legendary origins
The earliest historical people in Ireland of whom anything is known with certainty are the
In the
Originally a
During the Middle Ages and later, the seas of the
Gaelic society was remarkably durable and adaptive, and was able in the Middle Ages to absorb and
Norse and Scottish
The influx of Viking raiders and traders in the 9th and 10th centuries resulted in the founding of many of Ireland's most important towns, which later rose into important kingdoms, including
.Once settled, the Norse assimilated into Gaelic society, language, and religion, forming a hybrid
families.Over time, the Norse-Gaels became increasingly Gaelicised and disappeared as a distinct group. However, they left a lasting influence especially in the Isle of Man and
Old English
The Irish were influenced by the
A new phase of settlement began with the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. The arrival of the
These
Geraldines! These Geraldines! -not long our air they breathed;
Not long they fed on venison, in Irish water seethed;
Not often had their children been by Irish mothers nursed;
when from their full and genial hearts an Irish feeling burst!
The English monarch strove in vain, by law, and force, and bribe,
To win from Irish thoughts and ways this "more than Irish" tribe;
For still they clung tobreitheamh, cloak and bard:
What king dare say to Geraldine, "Your Irish wife discard"?
Thomas Davis, The Geraldines (1844)[70]
The Anglo-Norman invasion led to the creation of a distinct
One notable Irish ethnic group introduced by the invasion were the
Early Modern settlers
The 16th and 17th centuries brought new waves of settlement from Britain in the
New English and Ulster Scots
The plantations and confiscations led to the creation of an
Members of the Anglo-Irish ruling class commonly identified themselves as Irish,
Prominent Anglo-Irish poets, writers, and playwrights include
In the 19th century, the Anglo-Irish numbered among some of the most prominent mathematical and physical scientists, including
Huguenots
Following the French crown's revocation of the Edict of Nantes, many Huguenots settled in Ireland in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, encouraged by an act of parliament for Protestants' settling in Ireland.[74][75][76][77][78] Huguenot regiments fought for William of Orange in the Williamite War in Ireland, for which they were rewarded with land grants and titles, many settling in Dublin.[79] The most successful and enduring communities were those formed in Dublin and Portarlington,[80] while significant Huguenot settlements were also established in Cork, Lisburn, Waterford and Youghal. Smaller settlements, which included Killeshandra in County Cavan, contributed to the expansion of flax cultivation and the growth of the Irish linen industry. Numerous signs of Huguenot presence can still be seen with names still in use, and with areas of the main towns and cities named after the people who settled there, including the Huguenot District, Huguenot cemetery, and French Church Street in Cork, and the Huguenot cemetery and D'Olier Street in Dublin.
A number of Huguenots served as
Quakers
The first recorded meeting for worship of the
The Quakers were known for entrepreneurship, with Quaker families such as the
Notable Irish of Quaker descent have included naturalist John Rutty, diarist Mary Leadbeater, botanical artist Lydia Shackleton, early photographer Jane Shackleton, suffragist Anna Haslam, physiologist Joseph Barcroft, Celtic scholar and linguist Osborn Bergin,[87] polar explorer Ernest Shackleton, Supreme Court justice James Creed Meredith, architect Florence Fulton Hobson, and diplomat Denis Halliday.
Jewish
The earliest reference to the Jews in
Jews were excepted from the Irish Naturalisation Act of 1783 but these exceptions were abolished in 1846. The cause of the
The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw an increase in Jewish immigration to Ireland, from England, Germany, and the Russian Empire. In 1871, the Jewish population of Ireland was 258. By 1901, there were an estimated 3,771 Jews in Ireland, over half of them (2,200) residing in Dublin; by 1904, the total Jewish population had reached an estimated 4,800. Others entered Northern Ireland during World War II through the Kindertransport in 1939 or the Republic of Ireland in the 1940s and 1950s. The Jewish population peaked at around 5,500 in the 1940s, but has since declined to about 2,500 in 2016, mainly due to assimilation and emigration. The Irish Jewish population saw a large drop in numbers in 1948 after the establishment of Israel, to which a large percentage of Irish Jews moved out of ideological and religious convictions. There are currently three synagogues on the island of Ireland: three in Dublin and one in Belfast. There were formerly synagogues serving notable Jewish communities in Cork, Waterford, and Limerick, though the community in Limerick declined in the aftermath of the Limerick boycott of 1904.
Members of the Irish Jewish community have been prominent in business, academic, political and sporting circles. Many Irish Jews supported the
Modern migration
Until the final decade of the 20th century, the dominant migration pattern in Ireland after the
With growing prosperity since the last decade of the 20th century, Ireland became a destination for immigrants. Since the
Up to 50,000 eastern and central European migrant workers left Ireland in response to the Irish financial crisis.[96] In November 2013, Eurostat reported that the republic had the largest net emigration rate of any member state, at 7.6 emigrants per 1,000 population. However, it has the youngest population of any European Union member state and its population size is predicted to grow for many decades, in contrast with the declining population predicted for most European countries. A report published in 2008 predicted that the population would reach 6.7 million by 2060.[97] The Republic has also been experiencing a baby boom, with increasing birth rates and overall fertility rates.[98] Despite this, the total fertility rate is still below replacement depending on when the measurement is taken. The Irish fertility rate is still the highest of any European country.[99] This increase is significantly fuelled by non-Irish immigration – in 2009, a quarter of all children born in the Republic were born to mothers who had immigrated from other countries.[100]
Genetics
Genetic research shows a strong similarity between the
A 2017 genetic study done on the Irish shows that there is fine-scale population structure between different regional populations of the island, with the largest difference between native 'Gaelic' Irish populations and those of Northern Ireland known to have recent, partial British ancestry. They were also found to have most similarity to two main ancestral sources: a 'French' component (mostly northwestern French) which reached highest levels in the Irish and other Celtic populations (Welsh, Highland Scots and Cornish) and showing a possible link to the Bretons; and a 'West Norwegian' component related to the Viking era.[115][116]
Culture
Arts
The early history of Irish visual art is generally considered to begin with early carvings found at sites such as
The Irish tradition of
Exploration
Irish people made important contributions to
The legendary 6th-century Christian monk and seafarer Brendan the Navigator is credited with the exploration of the
In the modern era, Irish people were involved in the
The 19th and 20th centuries brought several important generations of Irish
Irish explorers of Africa include James Hingston Tuckey, Daniel Houghton, Thomas Joseph Hutchinson and Thomas Heazle Parke, the first Irishman to cross Africa. Explorers of Australia include Anthony O'Grady Lefroy, George Fletcher Moore and Robert O'Hara Burke, while Peter Dillon explored Oceania. Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Persian Gulf were surveyed by Francis Beaufort, Henry Chichester Hart, Henry Blosse Lynch, Thomas Kerr Lynch and Christopher Costigan.
Contemporary Irish explorers include Dermot Somers, Pat Falvey, Mike O'Shea, Mark Pollock and Jeremy Curl.
Literature
For a comparatively small population of about 6 million people, Ireland has made an enormous contribution to literature, which is one of the best known achievements of the Irish people. Irish literature encompasses the Irish and English languages, but has also included important writers in Latin, French and other languages in the past.
In the Middle Ages, Gaelic Ireland produced an abundance of literature in both
.Vernacular literature in Gaelic Ireland included poetry and complex bodies of
The Vikings had a limited impact on Irish literature, although reflection on the political impact of the Vikings can be seen in medieval sagas such as the mythological
The Irish people have also contributed to literature in the English language to a significant extent and from a very early date. The second earliest poem in the monumental
Irish people have also made contributions to corpuses of literature in languages other than Latin, Irish and English. Some time in the early 13th century, a Hiberno-Norman poet in Ireland composed the verse chronicle The Song of Dermot and the Earl in the Anglo-Norman language. Geoffrey of Waterford also produced important works of Anglo-Norman literature. Oscar Wilde and Samuel Beckett wrote in both English and French.
Notable writers with Irish ancestry in the wider diaspora have included the Brontë family (including Anne, Charlotte, and Emily Brontë, all daughters of the Irish curate Patrick Brontë), Edgar Allan Poe, Henry James, L. Frank Baum, Eugene O'Neill, F. Scott Fitzgerald, James T. Farrell, Flannery O'Connor and Robert Graves.
Philosophy
The history of Irish philosophers begins early with the Christian monks and scholars of the Middle Ages, such as the rationalist
Later internationally-significant medieval and early modern scholastic philosophers born in Ireland included
The early modern period saw key problems in natural philosophy posed by
The close relationship between philosophy and
Contemporary philosophers include
Politics
Political affiliation among Irish people has traditionally broken along longstanding "tribal" lines, with
Irish people have made notable contributions to political theory and political life on both a national and international level.
Science and mathematics
There have been notable Irish scientists, naturalists, and mathematicians from around the 6th century to the present day. These include the
The history of Irish scientists
Early modern Irish forerunners of modern science include father of chemistry Robert Boyle and natural philosophers
Irish physicists made notable contributions to
In addition to Robert Mallet, John Tyndall, and John Joly, noted Irish geologists have included
Notable Irish mathematicians include William Rowan Hamilton, inventor of quaternions and Hamiltonian mechanics, George Stokes, contributor of the Navier–Stokes equations, and cryptologists Richard J. Hayes, Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander, and Gordon Foster. Other notable Irish mathematicians of the 18th and 19th centuries include James Thomson, Robert Murphy, James MacCullagh, Charles Graves, Matthew O'Brien, Michael Roberts, Thomas Kingsmill Abbott, William S. Burnside, Andrew James Campbell Allen, Robert Russell, Henry Gordon Dawson, Matthew Wyatt Joseph Fry, William McFadden Orr, Henry Charles McWeeney, and James Cullen, while mathematicians of the last century include Charles Henry Rowe, TS Broderick, Carew Arthur Meredith, Samuel James Patterson, and Paul McNicholas. Irish female mathematicians and astronomers included Agnes Mary Clerke, Sophie Bryant, Alicia Boole Stott, Alice Everett, Annie S. D. Maunder, Edith Anne Stoney, Cathleen Synge Morawetz, and Sarah Flannery, while Sheila Tinney, Muriel Kennett Wales, Barbara Gertrude Yates, and Siobhán Vernon are variously regarded as the first Irish women to receive doctorates in mathematics.
Historic links between the Christian churches and education in Ireland mean that the Irish people have also contributed notable priest-scientists, including mathematicians Cornelius Denvir and Pádraig de Brún, physicists William Hales, Daniel William Cahill, James B. Kavanagh, James Robert McConnell, Ernan McMullin, Tom Burke, and Patrick Aidan Heelan, electrical scientists Nicholas Callan, James William MacGauley, and Gerald Molloy, seismologist and astronomer Edward Pigot, astronomers James Hamilton and William Frederick Archdall Ellison, and paleoarchaeologist John MacEnery.
Irish scientists not born in Ireland, but permanently settled or naturalised there, have included English-born mathematician George Boole, Danish-born astronomer John Louis Emil Dreyer, Austrian-born physicist Erwin Schrödinger, Hungarian-born physicist Cornelius Lanczos, Welsh-born physicist John T. Lewis, Georgian-born mathematician Samson Shatashvili, and Somali-born mathematician Abdusalam Abubakar. Scientists of Irish descent within the wider diaspora have included Nobel Laureates Charles H. Townes and John O'Keefe.
Sport
Sport plays an important role for Irish people. The many sports played and followed in Ireland include association football, Gaelic games (including Gaelic football, hurling and camogie), horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, boxing, tennis, hockey, golf, rowing, cricket, and rugby union.
Notable Irish Olympians include John Boland, Sonia O'Sullivan, Michelle Smith, Katie Taylor, and Gary and Paul O'Donovan.
Identity
Irish identity consists of a complex and overlapping series of identities among the different communities that make up the island of Ireland and its diaspora.
National identity
The earliest expressions of Irish identity begin with the early Christian missionaries, Saint Patrick and Saint Columbanus. The Roman foreigner Patrick was the earliest writer in classical antiquity to write positively of "the Irish" and of their suitability for inclusion among the worldwide community of Christianity, and Patrick himself is today celebrated by Irish people of both the Catholic and Protestant religious traditions as the national patron saint. The 6th-century Columbanus was the first Irish writer to refer to himself as Irish. One historian has stated that Columbanus had a "very strong sense of Irish identity... He's the first person to write about Irish identity, he's the first Irish person that we have a body of literary work from, so even on that point of view he's very important in terms of Irish identity."[152]
The Middle Ages saw a sharp distinction and at times animosity between Gaelic Irish identity and Hiberno-Norman or Anglo-Irish identity, respectively forming "two nations". The community of Norman descent used numerous epithets to describe themselves during the Middle Ages, such as "Englishmen born in Ireland" or "English-Irish", with the term "Old English" emerging as a result of the political
The emergence of a common Irish identity which included both the Irish-speaking Gaelic communities and English-speaking communities of Ireland can be traced to the political and religious conflicts of the 16th and 17th centuries, which saw a realignment of religion rather than language as increasingly the principal mark of identity shared by both Gaelic and Old English communities in Ireland, as distinguished from the New English settlers who brought Protestantism to Ireland as part of the Reformation and Tudor conquest. Many of the Old English in Ireland were dispossessed and excluded from positions of wealth and power within the new Protestant Ascendancy, largely due to their continued adherence to Catholicism. As a result, those loyal to Catholicism attempted to replace the distinction between "Norman" and "Gaelic Irish" under the new denominator of
The Anglo-Irish community which made up the Protestant Ascendancy meanwhile maintained an independent Irish identity which identified with Protestantism rather than Catholicism. The
Nonetheless, the political and cultural developments of the 19th and 20th centuries saw the mutually divergent development of
Local and provincial identity
Irish people on the island of Ireland have a strong sense of local or provincial identity, overlapping and in some contexts superseding national Irish identity. This is particularly strong through supporters of the Gaelic Athletic Association and Association football, which are organised on a county basis, and of Rugby Union, which is organised on a provincial basis. In Munster, for example,
Religious identity
In the Republic of Ireland, as of 2011, 3,861,335 people or about 84.16% of the population are Roman Catholic.[157] In Northern Ireland about 41.6% of the population are Protestant (19.1% Presbyterian, 13.7% Church of Ireland, 3.0% Methodist, 5.8% Other Christian) whilst approximately 40.8% are Catholic as of 2011.
The importance of religious identity in the Republic of Ireland can be illustrated by the
What defines an Irishman? His faith, his place of birth? What of the Irish-Americans? Are they Irish? Who is more Irish, a Catholic Irishman such as James Joyce who is trying to escape from his Catholicism and from his Irishness, or a Protestant Irishman like Oscar Wilde who is eventually becoming Catholic? Who is more Irish... someone like C.S. Lewis, an Ulster Protestant, who is walking towards it, even though he never ultimately crosses the threshold?[161]
Today the majority of Irish people in the Republic of Ireland identify as Catholic, although church attendance has significantly dropped in recent decades. In Northern Ireland, where almost 50% of the population is Protestant, there has also been a decline in attendances.
Northern Irish identity
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After the
In Northern Ireland, national identity is complex and diverse. In the early 20th century, most Ulster Protestants and Catholics saw themselves as Irish, although Protestants tended to have a much stronger sense of Britishness.[162] With the onset of the Home Rule Crisis and events that followed, Protestants gradually began to abandon Irish identity,[162] as Irishness and Britishness became more and more to be seen as mutually exclusive. In 1968, just before the onset of the Troubles, 39% of Protestants described themselves as British and 20% described themselves as Irish, while 32% chose an Ulster identity.[163] By 1978, following the worst years of the conflict, there had been a large shift in identity among Protestants, with the majority (67%) now calling themselves British and only 8% calling themselves Irish.[163][164] This shift has not been reversed.[164] Meanwhile, the majority of Catholics have continued to see themselves as Irish.[163]
From 1989, 'Northern Irish' began to be included as an identity choice in surveys, and its popularity has grown since then.[164] Some organizations have promoted 'Northern Irish' identity as a way of overcoming sectarian division. In a 1998 survey of students, this was one of the main reasons they gave for choosing that identity, along with a desire to appear 'neutral'.[165] However, surveys show that 'Northern Irish' identity tends to have different meanings for Catholics and Protestants.[165] Surveys also show that those choosing 'Northern Irish' regard their national identity as less important than those choosing British and Irish.[165]
Four polls taken between 1989 and 1994 revealed that when asked to state their national identity, over 79% of Northern Irish Protestants replied "British" or "Ulster" with 3% or less replying "Irish", while over 60% of Northern Irish Catholics replied "Irish" with 13% or less replying "British" or "Ulster".[166] A survey in 1999 showed that 72% of Northern Irish Protestants considered themselves "British" and 2% "Irish", with 68% of Northern Irish Catholics considering themselves "Irish" and 9% "British".[167] The survey also revealed that 78% of Protestants and 48% of all respondents felt "Strongly British", while 77% of Catholics and 35% of all respondents felt "Strongly Irish". 51% of Protestants and 33% of all respondents felt "Not at all Irish", while 62% of Catholics and 28% of all respondents felt "Not at all British".[168][169] [citation needed]
Diaspora identity
Many members of the Irish diaspora maintain a strong sense of Irish self-identity, to the point that
Nonetheless, Irish diaspora identity is sufficiently distinct from the identity of the people of the island of Ireland that the latter sometimes question its authenticity. Since the 1980s, the term "Plastic Paddy" has been sometimes used in a typically derogatory fashion toward the second-generation Irish in Britain,[171][172] those who identify as Irish Americans, or those who celebrate "Irishness" on Saint Patrick's Day, accusing them of having little actual connection to Irish culture.[173][174] The Scottish journalist Alex Massie observed this phenomenon in a 2007 article in the National Review:
When I was a student in Dublin we scoffed at the American celebration of St. Patrick, finding something preposterous in the green beer, the search for any connection, no matter how tenuous, to Ireland, the misty sentiment of it all that seemed so at odds with the Ireland we knew and actually lived in. Who were these people dressed as Leprechauns and why were they dressed that way? This Hibernian Brigadoon was a sham, a mockery, a Shamrockery of real Ireland and a remarkable exhibition of plastic paddyness. But at least it was confined to the Irish abroad and those foreigners desperate to find some trace of green in their blood.[175]
European identity
The Irish Christian missionaries of the early Middle Ages were "aware of the cultural unity of Europe", and it was the 6th-century Columbanus who is regarded as "one of the fathers of Europe". in Austria, respectively.
The
Nonetheless, European identity as a strongly overlapping component of Irish identity has grown in the wake of the Celtic Tiger and the
Diaspora
The
Today the diaspora is believed to contain an estimated 80 million people.[178] The size of the diaspora, more than thirteen times that of the island of Ireland itself, makes the diaspora an important constituent of the Irish people, and one whose members and achievements have been of major international significance. It is in part through the diaspora that the Irish are known internationally.
Medieval diaspora
The earliest known phases of Irish settlement outside of Ireland were in early medieval Wales, Scotland and the Isles, all of which came under Gaelic Irish influence from around the 4th and 5th centuries. Irish people spread further afield, throughout Britain and the European continent, as part of the
Irish people expanded throughout the
The High and Late Middle Ages brought a diaspora of both the Gaelic Irish and the Hiberno-Norman communities. Members of the Hiberno-Norman aristocracy, such as the family of William Marshal and Isabel de Clare, and later the FitzGerald dynasty, remained closely tied to Britain and to the Plantagenet and later Tudor realm by politics and marriage. Lower down the social hierarchy, the Irish people were active as traders on the European continent, and could be found in the major port towns of England, France and Spain. From the 12th century, before the Norman conquest of Ireland, there is incidental documentary evidence of Irish trade with the English ports of Bristol, Chester, York, Exeter, Gloucester and Cambridge.[182] By the 15th and 16th centuries, the merchants of Ireland's independent corporate cities (Wexford, Ross, Waterford, Dungarvan, Youghal, Cork, Kinsale, Dingle, Limerick, Galway, Sligo and Carrickfergus) had strong links with the French ports of Bordeaux and La Rochelle and with the ports of northern Spain.[183]
Modern diaspora
Reformation and religious diaspora
The
Over the course of the early modern period and into the
The creation of an international Irish Catholic hierarchy was largely the work of
Military diaspora
Between 1585 and 1818, over half a million Irish departed Ireland to serve in the wars on the
Irish recruitment for continental armies declined sharply after it was made illegal by the British government in Ireland in 1745. Replacements accordingly were drawn increasingly from the descendants of Irish soldiers who had settled in France or Spain, from non-Irish foreign recruits, or from natives of the recruiting countries. The last of the
Colonisation and transplantation
Like the movement of other European people to the Americas, Irish migration to the Caribbean and British North America had complex causes. The upheavals of the late 16th and early 17th centuries drove many Irish people to seek a better life, or survival, elsewhere. Like their English and Scottish counterparts, Irish people were active participants in the "rush for American colonies" during the early 17th century. Most travelled to the New World as indentured servants, but others were merchants and landholders who were key players in a variety of different trade and settlement enterprises.[191]
Some of the first Irish people to travel to the New World did so as members of the Spanish garrison in
The Famine
The single largest migration of Irish in the modern era was a result of the
Irish people emigrated to escape the famine, journeying predominantly to cities on the East Coast of the United States such as Boston and New York, to Liverpool in England, and to other territories of the British Empire such as Australia, Canada and New Zealand. Emigrants travelled on vessels known as "coffin ships" due to their high mortality rates from disease or starvation. A million are thought to have emigrated to Liverpool alone as a result of the famine.[202] The Great Famine left a lasting legacy in the memory of the diaspora[203] and was a major factor in its support for Irish nationalism and independence in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Twentieth and twenty-first centuries
Despite a high birth-rate, the population of Ireland continued a slow decline due to high emigration well into the 20th century, with the Republic recording a low of 2.8 million in the 1961 census.[204] During the 1960s, the population started to grow once more, although slowly as emigration was still common. Only with the Celtic Tiger of the 1990s did immigration begin to far outweigh emigration. Many former Irish emigrants returned home, and the Republic became an attractive destination for immigrants from elsewhere. Since the post-2008 Irish economic downturn, however, the island has once again been experiencing net emigration.
Notable communities
Great Britain
Due to their proximity, there has been a continuous movement of people between the islands of Ireland and Great Britain from the earliest phases of recorded history, and roughly 14 million (a quarter of the population of the United Kingdom) may have some Irish ancestry. In modern times, the most significant exodus of Irish people to Britain came in the 19th century, largely in the wake of the Great Famine of the 1840s. The Irish were traditionally involved in the building trade and transport, particularly as dockers and as
Notable members of the Irish community in Britain have historically included politicians such as Edmund Burke and the Duke of Wellington, the writers Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Patrick Brontë, Oliver Goldsmith and Oscar Wilde, and actors such as Liam Neeson, Daniel Day-Lewis and Graham Norton. In the 20th and 21st centuries, former Prime Ministers James Callaghan, John Major, Tony Blair and David Cameron have been among those with Irish ancestry.
Today, it is estimated that as many as 6 million people living in the United Kingdom (around 10% of the UK population) have at least one Irish grandparent.
Spain and Latin America
In early modern Spain, legislation recognised the medieval origin myth which claimed that the Gaelic Irish had originated in the north of Spain. Thus, from the 16th till the 19th centuries, people born in Ireland were automatically considered natural subjects of the King of Spain with the rights and privileges of Spanish citizenship, without having to swear an oath of naturalisation. Political ties between Catholic Spain and the Catholic Gaelic order in Ireland during the
It is believed that as many as 30,000 Irish people emigrated to Argentina between the 1830s and the 1890s.[8] This was encouraged by the clergy, as they considered a Catholic country preferable to a Protestant United States. This flow of emigrants dropped sharply when assisted passage to Australia was introduced at which point the Argentine government responded with their own scheme and wrote to Irish bishops, seeking their support. However, there was little or no planning for the arrival of a large number of immigrants, no housing, no food.[208] Many died, others made their way to the United States and other destinations, some returned to Ireland, a few remained and prospered. Thomas Croke Archbishop of Cashel, said: "I most solemnly conjure my poorer countrymen, as they value their happiness hereafter, never to set foot on the Argentine Republic however tempted to do so they may be by offers of a passage or an assurance of comfortable homes."[209] Some famous Argentines of Irish descent include Che Guevara, former president Edelmiro Julián Farrell, and admiral William Brown.
In the mid-19th century, large numbers of Irish immigrants were conscripted into
North America
The Irish diaspora remains arguably most prominently established in the United States and Canada. People of Irish descent are the second largest self-reported ethnic group in the United States, after
Irish Americans have historically been most numerous in Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, Chicago, Atlanta, Memphis, New England, and the Delaware Valley. In Canada, Irish Canadians are most numerous in Ontario, but are most common in the Maritimes, in particular in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland and Labrador. In Quebec, Irish Quebecers constitute the second largest ethnic group in the province after French Canadians.
Irish people have been prominent in American and Canadian history. Nine of the signatories of the
Australia and New Zealand
During the 18th and 19th centuries, 300,000 free emigrants and 45,000 convicts left Ireland to settle in
Asia and Africa
Irish people have travelled to
The first recorded
Irish people have been present in the
In Africa, Irish communities can be found in
Anti-Irish sentiment
The Irish people have experienced considerable anti-Irish sentiment, racism, and ethnic or religious discrimination during their history. Between the 5th century and the 12th century, medieval views of Ireland and the Irish people were almost uniformly positive. The promotion of negative views and stereotypes of the Irish can largely be traced to Gerald of Wales, a partisan agent and propagandist of the English conquest in Ireland who cast the Irish as lazy, backward and semi-pagan barbarians. By the 14th century, there were reports of members of the Norman community in Ireland who publicly claimed that it was "no more sin to kill an Irishman than to kill a dog."
Modern anti-Irish sentiment was linked with
Historically, the Irish experience of ethnic and religious discrimination and political and legal repression led to the Irish people's identification with other repressed or marginalised groups, particularly among those of more nationalist outlook: notably with the Jewish people in the 19th and 20th centuries,
Related ethnic groups
Irish Travellers
Irish Travellers (Irish: an lucht siúil, meaning 'the walking people') are a distinct, traditionally itinerant ethnic group indigenous to Ireland, whose members maintain a set of traditions.[234][235] Although predominantly English-speaking, many also speak Shelta. They mostly live in Ireland as well as in large communities in the United Kingdom.[236] Traveller rights groups have long pushed for ethnic status from the Irish government, finally succeeding in 2017.[237] As of 2016, there are 32,302 Travellers within Ireland,[238] with estimates of those living in Great Britain at about 15,000[239] as part of a total estimation of over 300,000 Romani and other Traveller groups in the UK.[240]
The origin of the group is obscure, with competing theories suggesting variously that they are Romani, Gaelic or pre-Gaelic in origin. Present genetic evidence indicates that they are genetically Irish.
Irish Travellers are not an entirely homogeneous group, instead reflecting some of the variation also seen in the settled population. Four distinct genetic clusters were identified in the 2017 study, and these match social groupings within the community.[244]
Black Irish
Black Irish is an ambiguous term sometimes used (mainly outside Ireland) as a reference to a dark-haired
See also
Citations
- ^ [email protected], Scottish Government, St. Andrew's House, Regent Road, Edinburgh EH1 3DG Tel:0131 556 8400 (29 May 2009). "The Scottish Diaspora and Diaspora Strategy: Insights and Lessons from Ireland". www.scotland.gov.uk.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Demographics of the Republic of Ireland
- ^ Demographics of Northern Ireland
- ^ American FactFinder, United States Census Bureau. "U.S. Census Bureau, 2007". Factfinder.census.gov. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
- ^ "One in four Britons claim Irish roots". BBC News. 16 March 2001. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
- ^ "Department of Foreign Affairs - Emigrant Grants". 28 July 2013. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) - ^ "Ethnic Origin (264), Single and Multiple Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Generation Status (4), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". Statistics Canada. 2011.
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This second Casement has a good claim to be the father of twentieth-century human rights investigations, a one-man precursor of Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International.
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- ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 744.
- ^ Woulfe, Patrick (1923). Sloinnte Gaedheal is Gall: Irish names and surnames. M. H. Gill & son. pp. xx. Retrieved 20 February 2010.
- ^ Richard Hooker. "The Normans". Washington State University. Archived from the original on 14 June 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2008.
- ^ a b Joseph Lennon, Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History, pp. 24-36
- ^ Graham Parry, The Trophies of Time: English Antiquarians of the Seventeenth Century, p. 36.
- ^ a b c d Diarmuid Scully, "The Remonstrance of the Irish Princes, 1317", History Ireland, Volume 21, Issue 6 (November/December 2013)
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 433, 615, 724
- ^ a b Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 433, 615.
- ^ Joseph Lennon, Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History, pp. 28-36
- ^ MacManus, p 1
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 192
- ^ Seán Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages, pp. 14-5.
- ^ a b Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 432-3.
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- ^ Elizabeth FitzPatrick, Royal Inauguration in Gaelic Ireland c. 1100-1600: A Cultural Landscape Study, p. 34.
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- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, pp. 250-3.
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- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, pp. 250-1.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 137.
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- ^ a b c Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 970.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 423-4.
- ^ Seán Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages, p. 28.
- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, pp. 47-8.
- ^ Kenneth Nicholls, Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages, pp. 12-20.
- ^ Seán Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages, pp. 147-9.
- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, pp. 21-2, 47-8.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 589-90.
- ^ Seán Duffy, Ireland in the Middle Ages, pp. 142, 148, 154-5.
- ^ James Lydon, Ireland in the Later Middle Ages, pp. 94-7.
- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, pp. 22-3, 47-8.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 545-6.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 424.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 1111.
- ^ Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, p. 244-8.
- ^ a b c d Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 426.
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- ^ a b Steven G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors, p. 247
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Nichollswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ James F. Lydon, The Making of Ireland: From Ancient Times to the Present, pp. 141-3.
- ^ James F. Lydon, The Making of Ireland: From Ancient Times to the Present, pp. 140-3.
- ^ "The Geraldines". UCC
- ^ The Anglo-Irish, Movements for Political & Social Reform, 1870–1914, Multitext Projects in Irish History, University College Cork Archived 2 May 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 28-9, 92.
- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 465.
- ^ Grace Lawless Lee (2009), The Huguenot Settlements in Ireland, Page 169
- ^ Raymond Hylton (2005), Ireland's Huguenots and Their Refuge, 1662–1745: An Unlikely Haven, p. 194, Quote: "The Bishop of Kildare did come to Portarlington to consecrate the churches, backed by two prominent Huguenot Deans of ... Moreton held every advantage and for most of the Portarlington Huguenots there could be no option but acceptance ...
- ^ Raymond P. Hylton, "Dublin's Huguenot Community: Trials, Development, and Triumph, 1662–1701", Proceedings of the Huguenot Society of London 24 (1983–1988): 221–231
- ^ Raymond P. Hylton, "The Huguenot Settlement at Portarlington, ...
- ^ C. E. J. Caldicott, Hugh Gough, Jean-Paul Pittion (1987), The Huguenots and Ireland: Anatomy of an Emigration, Quote: "The Huguenot settlement at Portarlington, 1692–1771. Unique among the French Protestant colonies established or augmented in Ireland following the Treaty of Limerick (1691), the Portarlington settlement was planted on the ashes of an ..."
- ^ The Irish Pensioners of William III's Huguenot Regiments
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- ^ The Quaker village of Ballitore Irish Quakers, Irish Genealogy Toolkit.
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{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Barry, Aoife. "Ireland has highest birth rate in the EU".
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{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link - doi:10.1101/013433.)
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=ignored (|display-authors=suggested) (help - PMID 26062507.)
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=ignored (|display-authors=suggested) (help - doi:10.1101/016477.)
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=ignored (|display-authors=suggested) (help - ^ Radford, Tim (28 December 2015). "Irish DNA originated in Middle East and eastern Europe". The Guardian.
- ^ Lara M. Cassidy; Rui Martiniano; et al. (28 December 2015). "Neolithic and Bronze Age migration to Ireland and establishment of the insular Atlantic genome" (PDF). PNAS.
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- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 122, 367-8, 774
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- ^ The Irish Contribution to European Scholastic Thought, pp.49-59.
- ^ The Irish Contribution to European Scholastic Thought, pp. 60-87.
- ^ The Irish Contribution to European Scholastic Thought, pp. 88-110.
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- ^ The Irish Contribution to European Scholastic Thought, pp. 192-211.
- ^ The Irish Contribution to European Scholastic Thought, pp. 220-3.
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- ^ John Hayes, "G.E.M. Anscombe - Irish-born philosopher", History Ireland, Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 42-4.
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- ^ "FF and FG tribal split traced back to 12th century"
- ISBN 978-0-8020-9018-8), p. 6
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- ^ Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, pp. 484, 966-7.
- ^ a b c Brian Lawlor, The Encyclopedia of Ireland, p. 967-8.
- ^ https://www.irishcatholic.com/europes-forgotten-founding-fathers/
- ^ Canny, Nicholas, From Reformation to Restoration: Ireland 1534–1660 (Dublin 1987); the third volume in the Helicon history of Ireland paperback series.
- ^ a b Thomas Davis (28 February 2013). "Our National Language". From-Ireland.net. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
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- ^ "Population classified by religion for relevant censuses from 1881 to 2006 Summary". Central Statistics Office. Archived from the original on 5 October 2008.
- ^ "In Dublin". Time Magazine. 20 June 1932. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
- ^ John Paul McCarthy; Tomás O'Riordan. "The 31st International Eucharistic Congress, Dublin, 1932". University College Cork. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Newspapers and contemporaries estimated that close to a million souls had converged on the Phoenix Park for the climax of the Congress
- ^ The figure 1,250,000 is mentioned on the commemorative stone at the Papal Cross in the Phoenix Park, Dublin; a quarter of the population of the island of Ireland, or a third of the population of Republic of Ireland
- ^ Pearce, Joseph (March–April 2007). "Editorial: The Celtic Enigma". St. Austin Review. 7 (2). Ave Maria University, Naples, Florida: Sapientia Press: 1.
- ^ a b Walker, Brian. "British or Irish - who do you think you are?". Belfast Telegraph, 10 December 2008.
- ^ a b c Moxon-Browne, Edward. "National identity in Northern Ireland". Social Attitudes in Northern Ireland: First Report. Blackstaff Press, 1991.
- ^ a b c Conflict and Consensus: A Study of Values and Attitudes in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Institute of Public Administration, 2005. pp.60-62
- ^ a b c McKeown, Shelley. Identity, Segregation and Peace-building in Northern Ireland. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. p.32
- ^ "in, Social Attitudes in Northern Ireland: The Fifth Report". Cain.ulst.ac.uk. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
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- ^ Aldous, p 185
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It is a sad and pitiable sight to see Irish mothers with, in some cases, their dying babes in their arms ... ... in many cases mothers sold their clothing from their backs to procure food for their starving children
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References
- Aldous, Richard (2007). Great Irish Speeches. London: Quercus Publishing PLC. ISBN 978-1-84724-195-5.
- Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7.
- Ellis, Steven G. (1985). Tudor Ireland: Crown, Community, and the Conflict of Cultures, 1470–1603. Great Britain: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-49341-4.
- MacManus, Seamus (1921). The Story of the Irish Race: A Popular History of Ireland. Ireland: The Irish Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-517-06408-5. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
- McLaughlin, Mark G. (1980). The Wild Geese: The Irish Brigades of France and Spain. Christopher Warner, illustrator. ISBN 978-0-85045-358-4.
- Nicholls, Kenneth W. (1972). Gaelic and Gaelicised Ireland in the Middle Ages. Gill and Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-7171-0561-8.
- ISBN 978-0-7867-1890-0.
- ISBN 978-0-593-05652-3.
- Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. ISBN 978-3-8331-4676-3.
- Various (2001). Smiley, Jane (ed.). The Sagas of Icelanders. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-100003-9.
External links
- Blood of the Irish—Documentary about Irish genetic history
- Irish ancestors on Ireland.com
- Irish Names at Library Ireland
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Miscellaneous unsorted
Names that begin with "O'" include Ó Bánion (
In both cases the following name undergoes lenition. However, if the second part of the surname begins with the letter C or G, it is not lenited after Nic.
The proper surname for a woman in Irish uses the feminine prefix nic (meaning daughter) in place of mac. Thus a boy may be called Mac Domhnaill whereas his sister would be called Nic Dhomhnaill or Ní Dhomhnaill – the insertion of 'h' follows the female prefix in the case of most consonants (bar H, L, N, R, & T).
Similar surnames to those of the Irish people are found among the Scottish people for many reasons, including the shared Gaelic heritage and later migrations to Scotland between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries.
There are a number of Irish surnames derived from Norse personal names, including
The
Other Latin names for people from Ireland in Classic and Mediaeval sources include Attacotti.
One Roman historian records that the Irish people were divided into "sixteen different nations" or tribes.[2] Traditional histories assert that the Romans never attempted to conquer Ireland, although it may have been considered.[2] The Irish were not, however, cut off from Europe; they frequently raided the Roman territories,[2] and also maintained trade links.[3]
The Milesian legend is demonstrated in the works of
The introduction of Christianity to the Irish people during the 5th century brought a radical change to the Irish people's foreign relations.[4] The only military raid abroad recorded after that century is a presumed invasion of Wales, which according to a Welsh manuscript may have taken place around the 7th century.[4] In the words of Seumas MacManus:
If we compare the history of Ireland in the 6th century, after Christianity was received, with that of the 4th century, before the coming of Christianity, the wonderful change and contrast is probably more striking than any other such change in any other nation known to history.[4]
Following the conversion of the Irish to Christianity, Irish secular laws and social institutions remained in place.[5]
Among the most famous people of ancient Irish history are the
...such beautiful fictions of such beautiful ideals, by themselves presume and prove beautiful-souled people, capable of appreciating lofty ideals.[6]
Ireland 'was justly styled a "Nation of Annalists"'.[7]
Irish physicians, such as the O'Briens in
With Latin, the early Irish scholars "show almost a like familiarity that they do with their own Gaelic". "The knowledge of Greek", says Professor Sandys in his History of Classical Scholarship, "which had almost vanished in the west was so widely dispersed in the schools of Ireland that if anyone knew Greek it was assumed he must have come from that country."'[11] The Gaelic Irish were distinguished from the English (who only used their own language or French) in that they only used Latin abroad—a language "spoken by all educated people throughout Gaeldom".[12]
An English report of 1515 states that the Irish people were divided into over sixty Gaelic lordships and thirty Anglo-Irish lordships.[5] The English term for these lordships was "nation" or "country".[5] The Irish term "oireacht" referred to both the territory and the people ruled by the lord.[5] Literally, it meant an "assembly", where the Brehons would hold their courts upon hills to arbitrate the matters of the lordship.[5] Indeed, the Tudor lawyer John Davies described the Irish people with respect to their laws:
There is no people under the sun that doth love equal and indifferent (impartial) justice better than the Irish, or will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it be against themselves, as they may have the protection and benefit of the law upon which just cause they do desire it.[8]
Another English commentator records that the assemblies were attended by "all the scum of the country"—the labouring population as well as the landowners.[5] While the distinction between "free" and "unfree" elements of the Irish people was unreal in legal terms, it was a social and economic reality.[5] Social mobility was usually downwards, due to social and economic pressures.[5] The ruling clan's "expansion from the top downwards" was constantly displacing commoners and forcing them into the margins of society.[5]
Many Gaelic Irish were displaced during the 17th century plantations. Nonetheless, only in Ulster did the plantations of mostly Scottish prove long-lived; the other three provinces (
Remove author dates: Among the last of the true bardic poets were
Irishmen also travelled eastward with the
Two consecutive
Fulco of Ireland was credited with leading four thousand Irish soldiers to France to serve Charlemagne.
These, together with the Irish communities at
The chief protagonist of
According to the writer Seumas MacManus, the explorer Christopher Columbus visited Ireland to gather information about the lands to the west,[17] a number of Irish names are recorded on Columbus' crew roster preserved in the archives of Madrid and it was an Irishman named Patrick Maguire who was the first to set foot in the Americas in 1492;[17] however, according to Morison and Miss Gould[clarification needed], who made a detailed study of the crew list of 1492, no Irish or English sailors were involved in the voyage.[18]
In 1612, Irish settlers established a colony in
In the early years of the English Civil War, a French traveller remarked that the Irish "are better soldiers abroad than at home".[20]
The Anglo-Irish were also represented among the senior officers of the
For over 150 years, Huguenots were allowed to hold their services in Lady Chapel in
Irish Catholics continued to receive an education in secret "hedgeschools", in spite of the Penal laws.[23] A knowledge of Latin was common among the poor Irish mountaineers in the 17th century, who spoke it on special occasions, while cattle were bought and sold in Greek in the mountain market-places of Kerry.[24]
Many of the Irish labourers who crossed the Atlantic from the 1620s did so by choice. However,
The English government produced little aid, only sending raw corn known as 'Peel's Brimstone' to Ireland. It was known by this name after the British PM at the time and the fact that native Irish weren't aware on how to cook corn. This led to little or no improvement. The British government set up workhouses which were disease ridden (with cholera, TB and others) but they also failed as little food was available and many died on arrival as they were overworked. Some English political figures at the time saw the famine as a purge from God to exterminate the majority of the native Irish population.
The Great famine is one of the biggest events in Irish history and is ingrained in the identity on the nation to this day. It was a major in factor in Irish Nationalism and Ireland's fight for Independence during subsequent rebellions. As many Irish people felt a stronger need to regain Independence from English rule. There are many statues and memorials in Dublin, New York and other cities in memory of the famine. The fields of Athenry is a famous song about the great famine and is often sung at national team sporting events in memory and homage to those affected by the famine.
Many records show the majority of emigrants to Australia were in fact prisoners sent to assist in the construction of English colonies there. A substantial proportion of these committed crimes in hopes of being extradited to Australia, favouring it to the persecution and hardships they endured in their homeland.
Our blossom is red as the life's blood we shed
For Liberty's cause against alien laws
WhenLlewellyndrew steel
For Alba and Erin and Cambria's weal
The flower of the free, the heather, the heather
The Bretons and Scots and Irish together
The Manx and the Welsh and Cornish forever
Six nations are we all Celtic and free!
The 19th century saw the identification of Irish nationalism with that of Celtic nationalism.
Conversely, some Irish people would have at least some degree of English or Scottish ancestry. Irish of partial English background are most common in the Dublin area, descended from settlers in the
Religion has been a matter of concern over the last century for the followers of nationalist ideologists such as
When the 31st
In 1995, President Mary Robinson reached out to the "70 million people worldwide who can claim Irish descent".[33]
Many famous and influential figures have claimed Irish ancestry such as
- ^ "Cox family pedigree". www.libraryireland.com.
- ^ a b c MacManus, p 86
- ^ MacManus, p 87
- ^ a b c MacManus, p 89
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Nicholls
- ^ MacManus, p67
- ^ MacManus, p 352
- ^ a b MacManus, p 348
- ^ MacManus, p 221
- ^ MacManus, p 221-222
- ^ MacManus, p 215
- ^ MacManus, p 340
- ISBN 978-0-7486-0754-9.
- ISBN 978-0-7607-4284-6.
- ^ Campbell, Ewan. "Were the Scots Irish?" in Antiquity #75 (2001).
- ^ Smiley, p. 274
- ^ a b MacManus, p 343–344
- ISBN 978-0-85613-922-2.
- ^ a b "Murray, Edmundo, "Brazil and Ireland" - Irish in Brazil". irlandeses.org. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
- ^ McLaughlin, p4
- ^ 300 years of the French Church, St. Paul's Church, Portarlington.
- ^ Portarlington, Grant Family Online
- ^ MacManus, p 461
- ^ MacManus, p 461-462
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Swingenwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Cite error: The named reference
Sheridanwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference
Beckleswas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c Thomas Davis (28 February 2013). "Our National Language". From-Ireland.net. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
- ^ Thomas Davis – Dame Street (17 March 2012). "90,000 Photographs By William Murphy – 90,000 Photographs By William Murphy". Dublinstreets.osx128.com. Archived from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 1 March 2014.
- ^ a b "In Dublin". Time Magazine. 20 June 1932. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
- ^ John Paul McCarthy; Tomás O'Riordan. "The 31st International Eucharistic Congress, Dublin, 1932". University College Cork. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 23 June 2008.
Newspapers and contemporaries estimated that close to a million souls had converged on the Phoenix Park for the climax of the Congress
- ^ The figure 1,250,000 is mentioned on the commemorative stone at the Papal Cross in the Phoenix Park, Dublin; a quarter of the population of the island of Ireland, or a third of the population of Republic of Ireland
- ^ "Ireland's Diaspora". Irelandroots.com. Retrieved 28 March 2010.