Philip II of Spain
Philip II | |
---|---|
Mary I | |
Successor | Elizabeth I |
Co-monarch | Mary I |
Born | 21 May 1527 Palacio de Pimentel, Valladolid, Crown of Castile |
Died | 13 September 1598 El Escorial, San Lorenzo de El Escorial, Crown of Castile | (aged 71)
Burial | El Escorial |
Spouses | Maria Manuela of Portugal (m. 1543; died 1545) |
Issue more... | |
House | Habsburg |
Father | Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor |
Mother | Isabella of Portugal |
Religion | Roman Catholicism |
Signature |
Philip II.
The son of
Deeply devout, Philip saw himself as the defender of Catholic Europe against the
Under Philip, an average of about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, rising to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 men left Spain to fight in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands).[5]
Early life: 1527–1544
A member of the
In April 1528, when Philip was eleven months old, he received the oath of allegiance as heir to the crown from the
Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga, a Castilian nobleman who served as the
Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the
Domestic policy
This section needs additional citations for verification. (January 2020) |
After living in the Netherlands in the early years of his reign,[9] Philip II decided to return to Castile. Although sometimes described as an absolute monarch, Philip faced many constitutional constraints on his authority, influenced by the growing strength of the bureaucracy. The Spanish Empire was not a single monarchy with one legal system but a federation of separate realms, each jealously guarding its own rights against those of the House of Habsburg. In practice, Philip often found his authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less effective than that of local lords.[10]
Philip carried
In his will, Charles stated his doubts over Navarre and recommended that his son give the kingdom back. Both King Charles and his son Philip II failed to abide by the elective (contractual) nature of the Crown of Navarre and took the kingdom for granted. This sparked mounting tension not only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III of Navarre but also with the Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) and the Diputación for breach of the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to a head in 1592 after several years of disagreements over the agenda of the intended parliamentary session.
In November 1592, the Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón revolted against another breach of the realm-specific laws, so the Attorney General (Justicia) of the kingdom, Juan de Lanuza, was executed on Philip II's orders, with his secretary Antonio Perez taking exile in France. In Navarre, the major strongholds of the kingdom were garrisoned by troops alien to the kingdom (Castilians) in a conspicuous violation of the local laws, and the Parliament had long been refusing to pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent without a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Parliament session was called, pushed by Philip II, who had arrived in Pamplona at the head of an unspecified military force, and with one only point on his agenda—attendance to the session was kept blank on the minutes: unlawful appointments of trusted Castilian officials and imposition of his son as the future king of Navarre at the Santa Maria Cathedral. A ceremony was held before the bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure and terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.
Philip II also grappled with the problem of the large
Despite its immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population that yielded a limited income to the crown (in contrast to France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Philip faced major difficulties in raising taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to local lords. He was able to finance his military campaigns only by taxing and exploiting the local resources of his empire. The flow of income from the New World proved vital to his militant foreign policy, but his exchequer several times faced bankruptcy.
Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning the "Spanish Golden Age", creating a lasting legacy in literature, music, and the visual arts. One of the notable artists from Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame for her talent and unusual role as a woman artist.
Economy
Charles V had left his son Philip with a debt of about 36 million ducats and an annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, known as Neapolitan sums).[11] Lenders had no power over the King and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the beginning of Spain's economic troubles as its kings would default six more times in the next 65 years.[12] Aside from reducing state revenues for overseas expeditions, the domestic policies of Philip II further burdened the Spanish kingdoms and would, in the following century, contribute to its decline, as maintained by some historians.[13]
The Spanish kingdoms were subject to different assemblies: the Cortes in Castile, the assembly in Navarre, and one each for the three regions of Aragon, which preserved traditional rights and laws from the time when they were separate kingdoms. This made the Spanish kingdoms and its possessions difficult to rule, unlike France, which while divided into regional states, had a single Estates-General. The lack of a viable supreme assembly led to power defaulting into Philip II's hands, especially as manager and final arbiter of the constant conflict between different authorities. To deal with the difficulties arising from this situation, authority was administered by local agents appointed by the crown and viceroys carrying out crown instructions. Philip II felt it necessary to be involved in the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for state affairs, finance, war, and the Inquisition.
Philip II played groups against each other, leading to a system of checks and balances that managed affairs inefficiently, even to the extent of damaging state business, as in the
King Philip II ruled at a critical turning point in European history toward
Foreign policy
Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination of Catholic fervour and dynastic objectives. He considered himself the chief defender of Catholic Europe, both against the
In 1588, the English defeated Philip's
The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were distributed to every major town and region in New Spain called relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to govern Philip's overseas possessions more effectively.
Italy
Charles V abdicated the throne of Naples to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young king was invested with the kingdom (officially called "Naples and Sicily") on 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne of Sicily is uncertain, but Philip was invested with this kingdom (officially "Sicily and Jerusalem") on 18 November 1554 by Julius.[15] In 1556, Philip decided to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory there, perhaps in response to Pope Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the benefit of the Church.
In a letter to the Princess Dowager of Portugal, Regent of the Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 September 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:
I have reported to your Highness what has been happening here, and how far the Pope is going in his fury and vain imaginings. His Majesty could not do otherwise than have a care for his reputation and dominions. I am sure your Highness will have had more recent news from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the field with an excellent army and has penetrated so far into the Pope's territory that his cavalry is raiding up to ten miles from Rome, where there is such panic that the population would have run away had not the gates been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, and was struggling with a fever on the 16th of this month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are not on as good terms as they were in the past. They would like to discuss peace. The best thing would be for the Pope to die, for he is the poison at the root of all this trouble and more which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to wrest the knife from this madman's hand and make him return to a sense of his dignity, acting like the protector of the Apostolic See, in whose name, and that of the College of Cardinals, his Majesty has publicly proclaimed that he has seized all he is occupying. The Pope is now sending again to the potentates of Italy for help. I hope he will gain as little thereby as he has done in the past, and that the French will calm down. May God give us peace in the end, as their Majesties desire and deserve![16]
In response to the invasion, Pope Paul IV called for a French military intervention. After minor fights in Lazio and near Rome, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo (Duke of Alba and Viceroy of Naples) met Cardinal Carlo Carafa and signed the Treaty of Cave as a compromise: French and Spanish forces left the Papal states and the Pope declared a neutral position between France and the Spanish kingdoms.[17]
Philip led the Spanish kingdoms into the final phase of the
By the end of the wars in 1559, Habsburg Spain had been established as the premier power of Europe, to the detriment of France. In France, Henry II was fatally wounded in a joust held during the celebrations of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn soon died. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would last for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced to second-rate powers, and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Aragon. Mary Tudor's death in 1558 enabled Philip to seal the treaty by marrying Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth of Valois, later giving him a claim to the throne of France on behalf of his daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia.
France
The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign sources. Philip claimed descent from
Philip signed the
During the
The Spanish victory at Terceira was followed by the
Philip financed the
In 1593, Henry agreed to convert to Catholicism; weary of war, most French Catholics switched to his side against the hardline core of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a foreign monarch, Philip. By the end of 1594 certain League members were still working against Henry across the country, but all relied on the support of the Spanish Crown. In January 1595, therefore, Henry officially declared war on the Spanish Crown, to show Catholics that Philip was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French state, and Protestants that he had not become a puppet of the Spanish Crown through his conversion, while hoping to reconquer large parts of northern France from the Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.[21]
French victory at the Battle of Fontaine-Française in Burgundy, 5 June 1595, marked an end to the Catholic League in France. The French also made some progress during an invasion of the Spanish Netherlands. They captured Ham and massacred the small Spanish garrison, provoking anger among the Spanish ranks.[citation needed] The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that year, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Le Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.[22] On 24 April 1596, the Spanish also conquered Calais. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597, the French Crown laid siege to it until it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish forces in September 1597. Henry then negotiated a peace with the Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, after the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.
The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement of the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry issued the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree of religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in France thus failed to oust Henry from the throne or suppress Protestantism in France, and yet they had played a decisive part in helping the French Catholic cause gain the conversion of Henry, ensuring that Catholicism would remain France's official and majority faith—matters of paramount importance for the devoutly Catholic Spanish king.
Mediterranean
In the early part of his reign Philip was concerned with the rising power of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent. Fear of Islamic domination in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive foreign policy.
In 1558, Turkish admiral
In 1560, Philip II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms and the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa, the Papal States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Malta. The joint fleet was assembled at Messina and consisted of 200 ships (60 galleys and 140 other vessels) carrying a total of 30,000 soldiers under the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the famous Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.
On 12 March 1560, the Holy League captured the island of
The grave threat posed by the increasing Ottoman domination of the Mediterranean was reversed in one of history's most decisive battles, with the destruction of nearly the entire Ottoman fleet at the
Strait of Magellan
During Philip's reign Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships.[23] To end navigation by rival powers in the Strait of Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco de Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to explore the strait and found settlements on its shores.[24]
In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa founded two colonies in the strait: Nombre de Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe. The latter was established north of the strait with 300 settlers.[25][26] The new colonies suffered from high death rates, likely as a consequence of executions, brawls, violent encounters with indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife.[27] A contributing cause for failure of the settlement may have been poor morale, an issue that plagued the venture almost from the beginning. [27] This can in part be explained by a series of difficulties the expedition had to go through between the departure from Spain and the arrival to the strait.[27] Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas by Sarmiento to aid the ailing colony has been attributed to the strain on Spain's resources that resulted from wars with England and Dutch rebels.[28]
In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad del Rey Don Felipe Puerto del Hambre, or "Port Famine". Most of the settlers had died from cold or starvation.[29] When Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement.[30] The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused Chiloé Archipelago to assume the role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.[31] Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected intelligence from all over Patagonia.[32]
Revolt in the Netherlands
Philip's rule in the
In 1572, a prominent exiled member of the Dutch aristocracy, William of Orange (Prince of Orange), invaded the Netherlands with a Protestant army, but he only succeeded in holding two provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Because of the Spanish repulse in the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally brutal son Fadrique,[35] Alba resigned his command, replaced by Luis de Requesens. Alba boasted that he had burned or executed 18,600 persons in the Netherlands,[36] in addition to the far greater number he massacred during the war, many of them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or hanged in one year, and the total number of Alba's Flemish victims can not have fallen short of 50,000.[37] Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained its battlefield superiority, destroying Louis of Nassau's German mercenary army at the Battle of Mookerheyde on 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Henry.
Rampant inflation and the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his soldiers consistently, leading to the so-called Spanish Fury at Antwerp in 1576, where soldiers ran amok through the streets, burning more than 1,000 homes and killing 6,000 citizens.[38] Philip sent in Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Spanish Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels in 1578 at the Battle of Gembloux,[39] and he captured many rebel towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585).[40]
The
King of Portugal
In 1578 young king
In 1580, Philip II marched into Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the
Relations with England and Ireland
King of England and Ireland
Philip's father arranged his marriage to 37-year-old Queen Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His father ceded the crown of Naples, as well as his claim to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage at Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just two days after their first meeting. Philip's view of the affair was entirely political. Lord Chancellor Gardiner and the House of Commons petitioned Mary to consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.
Under the terms of the
Acts making it high treason to deny Philip's royal authority were passed in Ireland[51] and England.[52] Philip and Mary appeared on coins together, with a single crown suspended between them as a symbol of joint reign. The Great Seal shows Philip and Mary seated on thrones, holding the crown together.[47] The coat of arms of England was impaled with Philip's to denote their joint reign.[53][54] During their joint reign, they waged war against France, which resulted in the loss of Calais, England's last remaining possession in France.
Philip's wife had succeeded to the Kingdom of Ireland, but the title of King of Ireland had been created in 1542 by Mary's father, Henry VIII, after he was excommunicated, and so it was not recognised by Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Pope Paul IV rectified this by issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as rightful King and Queen of Ireland.[55] King's County and Philipstown in Ireland were named after Philip as King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal style after Philip ascended the Spanish throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Grace of God, King and Queen of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Burgundy, Milan and Brabant, Counts of Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.
However, the couple had no children. Mary died in 1558 before the union could revitalise the Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip lost his rights to the English throne (including the ancient English claims to the French throne) and ceased to be King of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.
Philip's great-grandson,
After Mary I's death
Upon Mary's death, the throne went to
For many years Philip maintained peace with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's threat of excommunication. This was a measure taken to preserve a European balance of power. Ultimately, Elizabeth allied England with the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Further, English ships began a policy of piracy against Spanish trade and threatened to plunder the great Spanish treasure ships coming from the New World. English ships went so far as to attack a Spanish port. The last straw for Philip was the Treaty of Nonsuch signed by Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops and supplies to the rebels. Although it can be argued this English action was the result of Philip's Treaty of Joinville with the Catholic League of France, Philip considered it an act of war by England.
The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Catholic on the English throne. He turned instead to more direct plans to invade England and return the country to Catholicism. In 1588, he sent a fleet, the Spanish Armada, to rendezvous with the Duke of Parma's army and convey it across the English Channel. However, the operation had little chance of success from the beginning, because of lengthy delays, lack of communication between Philip II and his two commanders and the lack of a deep bay for the fleet. At the point of attack, a storm struck the English Channel, already known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which devastated large numbers of the Spanish fleet. There was a tightly fought battle against the English Royal Navy; it was by no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),[56] but the Spanish were forced into a retreat, and the overwhelming majority of the Armada was destroyed by the harsh weather. Whilst the English Royal Navy may not have destroyed the Armada at the Battle of Gravelines, they had prevented it from linking up with the army it was supposed to convey across the channel. Thus whilst the English Royal Navy may have only won a slight tactical victory over the Spanish, it had delivered a major strategic one—preventing the invasion of England. Through a week of fighting the Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.[57] However, over 7,000 English sailors died from disease during the time the Armada was in English waters.
The defeat of the Spanish Armada gave great heart to the Protestant cause across Europe. The storm that smashed the Armada was seen by many of Philip's enemies as a sign of the will of God. While the invasion had been averted, England was unable to take advantage of this success. An attempt to use her newfound advantage at sea with a counter-armada the following year failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.[58] Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in the Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their improved intelligence networks (although Cádiz was sacked by an Anglo-Dutch force after a failed attempt to seize the treasure fleet). The Habsburgs also struck back with the Dunkirkers, who took an increasing toll on Dutch and English shipping.
Eventually, the Spanish attempted two further Armadas, in October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was destroyed in a storm off northern Spain; it had lost as many as 72 of its 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather as it approached the English coast undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to a grinding end, but not until both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of the fighting was done on land in Ireland, France, and the Netherlands, with the English sending expeditionary forces to France and the Netherlands to fight Spain, and Spain attempting to assist Irish rebellions in Ireland.
Death
Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 September 1598, of cancer.[59] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old son, Philip III.
Legacy
Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its power. However, in spite of the great and increasing quantities of gold and silver flowing into his coffers from the American mines, the riches of the Portuguese spice trade, and the enthusiastic support of the Habsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, he would never succeed in suppressing Protestantism or defeating the Dutch rebellion. Early in his reign, the Dutch might have laid down their weapons if he had desisted in trying to suppress Protestantism,[citation needed] but his devotion to Catholicism would not permit him to do so. He was a devout Catholic and exhibited the typical 16th century disdain for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering the slightest damage to religion in the service of God, I would lose all of my estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, because I do not wish nor do I desire to be the ruler of heretics."[60]
As he strove to enforce Catholic orthodoxy through an intensification of the
Although he was deeply dedicated to rooting out heretical titles, he collected forbidden books for his own royal library at the El Escorial. His library contained 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and several thousand manuscripts.[61] The banned books were protected in a room on an upper floor of the library. He was passionate about rare books he personally collected from far and wide and researched and recorded information about previous owners.[61]
The School of Salamanca flourished under his reign. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly honoured at Rome by several popes and looked on as an oracle of learning, published his Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum et Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long a classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.
Because Philip II was the most powerful European monarch in an era of war and religious conflict,
However, some historians classify this anti-Spanish analysis as part of the
Even in countries that remained Catholic, primarily France and the Italian states, fear and envy of Spanish success and domination created a wide receptiveness for the worst possible descriptions of Philip II. Although some efforts have been made to separate legend from reality,
He ended French Valois ambitions in Italy and brought about the Habsburg ascendency in Europe. He secured the Portuguese kingdom and empire. He succeeded in increasing the importation of silver in the face of English, Dutch, and French privateers, overcoming multiple financial crises and consolidating Spain's overseas empire. Although clashes would be ongoing, he ended the major threat posed to Europe by the Ottoman navy.
Historian Geoffrey Parker offers a management-psychological explanation, as summarized by Tonio Andrade and William Reger:
One might have expected that Philip—being a dedicated, persistent, and hard-working man, and being the head of Western Europe's wealthiest and largest empire—would have succeeded in his aims. He didn't. His endeavors were doomed by his own character, or at least that's how Parker sees it. Drawing on studies in management science and organizational psychology, Parker argues that a successful manager of a large organization must keep attention on the big picture, must have a good strategy for dealing with copious information, must know how to delegate, and must be flexible. Philip failed on all counts. He was a micromanager who got bogged down in details, refusing to delegate and trying to read every dispatch that came to his desk. He obsessed and dithered, so that by the time his decisions were made and his orders reached the men meant to carry them out, the situation on the ground had changed. Philip was also inflexible, unwilling to abandon ineffective policies. Most pernicious of all was Philip's tendency toward messianic thinking, a belief that he was doing God's work and that heaven would support him with miracles.[72]
Titles, honours and styles
- Heir titles
- Prince of Gerona: 21 May 1527 – 16 January 1556
- Prince of Asturias 1528–1556
- King of Castile as Philip II: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
- King of Castile, of León, of Granada, of Toledo, of Galicia, of Seville, of Cordoba, of Murcia, of Jaen, of the Algarves, of Algeciras, of Gibraltar, of the Canary Islands, of the Indias, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean Sea;[note 4] Lord of Molina
- Lord of Biscay
- King of Aragon as Philip I: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
- King of Aragón
- King of the Two Sicilies
- King of Naples, of Jerusalem (from 25 July 1554)
- King of Sicily. Duke of Athens, of Neopatria
- King of Valencia
- King of Majorca
- King of Sardiniaand of Corsica, Margrave of Oristano, Count of Goceano
- King of Navarre
- Count of Barcelona, of Roussillon, of Cerdanya
- King of Portugal as Philip I: 12 September 1580 – 13 September 1598
- King of Portugal and the Algarves of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India, etc.
- King of England de jure uxoris as Philip I: 25 July 1554 – 17 November 1558[73]
- King of England, France (titular); Defender of the Faith
- King of Ireland
- King of England, France (titular);
- Imperial and Habsburg patrimonial titles:
- Duke of Milan: 11 October 1540 (secret donation) / 25 July 1554 (public investiture) – 13 September 1598
- Imperial vicar of Siena: since 30 May 1554
- Archduke of Austria
- Princely Count of Habsburg and of Tyrol
- Prince of Swabia
- Burgundian titles
- Lord of the Netherlands: 25 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
- Duke of Namur, of Zutphen. Margrave of the Holy Roman Empire, Lord of Frisia, Salins, Mechelen, the cities, towns and lands of Utrecht, Overyssel, Groningen
- Duke
- Count of Charolaisfrom 21 September 1558
- Duke of Burgundy
- Dominator in Asia, Africa
- Honours
- Knight of the Golden Fleece: 1531 – 13 September 1598
- Grand Master of the Order of the Golden Fleece:[74] 23 October 1555 – 13 September 1598
- Grand Master of the Order of Calatrava: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
- Grand Master of the Order of Alcantara: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
- Grand Master of the Order of Santiago: 16 January 1556 – 13 September 1598
- Grand Master of the Order of Montesa: 8 December 1587 – 13 September 1598
Philip continued his father's style of "
Following the
In the 1584
His coinage typically bore the
Heraldry
Heraldry of Philip II of Spain | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Family
Philip was married four times and had children with three of his wives. He also had two long-term relationships with Isabel Osorio and Eufrasia de Guzmán.
-
Maria Manuela of Portugal (1527–1545)
-
Mary I of England (1516–1558), by Antonis Mor
-
Elisabeth of Valois (1545–1568), by Juan Pantoja de la Cruz
-
Anna of Austria (1549–1580), by Sofonisba Anguissola
First marriage
Philip's first wife was his double first cousin, Maria Manuela, Princess of Portugal. She was a daughter of Philip's maternal uncle, John III of Portugal, and paternal aunt, Catherine of Austria. They were married at Salamanca on 12 November 1543. The marriage produced one son in 1545, after which Maria died four days later due to haemorrhage:
- Carlos, Prince of Asturias (8 July 1545 – 24 July 1568), died unmarried at the age of 23 and without issue.
Second marriage
Philip's second wife was his first cousin once removed, Queen
Third marriage
Philip's third wife was
- Miscarried twin daughters (August 1564)
- Isabella Clara Eugenia (12 August 1566 – 1 December 1633, aged 67), married Albert VII, Archduke of Austria
- Catherine Michaela (10 October 1567 – 6 November 1597, aged 30), married Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, and had issue
- Joan (3 October 1568) died shortly after birth.
Fourth marriage
Philip's fourth and final wife was his niece, Anna of Austria. Pope Pius V initially refused to grant Philip the dispensation needed to marry Anna, citing biblical prohibitions and the danger of birth defects. The pope reluctantly gave his permission when Philip threatened to abandon the Holy League in their fight against the Ottoman Turks.[79][80] By contemporary accounts, this was a convivial and satisfactory marriage (1570–1580) for both Philip and Anna. This marriage produced four sons and one daughter. Anna died of heart failure 8 months after giving birth to Maria in 1580.[citation needed]
Their children were:
- Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias (4 December 1571 – 18 October 1578, aged six)
- Charles Laurence (12 August 1573 – 30 June 1575, aged one)
- Diego Félix (15 August 1575 – 21 November 1582, aged seven)
- Philip III of Spain (14 April 1578 – 31 March 1621, aged 42)
- Maria (14 February 1580 – 5 August 1583, aged three).
-
Cenotaph of Philip and three of his four wives at El Escorial
-
Philip and his niece Anna banqueting with family and courtiers, by Alonso Sánchez Coello
Ancestry
Ancestors of Philip II of Spain | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Male-line family tree
See also
- Library of the Monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial
- Descendants of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile
- The empire on which the sun never sets
- List of Spanish monarchs
- Royal Armoury of Madrid
- Ruy Gómez de Silva, 1st Prince of Éboli
Notes
- ^ He was titled as Philip II (Spanish: Felipe II) in Spain, while in Portugal and his Italian kingdoms he ruled as Philip I (Portuguese: Filipe I).
- ^ Spain was a composite monarchy, and besides being the second Philip to rule Castile, he was the first to rule Aragon and the fourth to rule Navarre.
- ^ This appreciation is noted by Martin Hume in his aforementioned work ("Philip II of Spain", London 1897), pointing out how difficult is to show Philip II in a more favorable light to his fellow Englishmen because of that.
- ^ With the incorporation of Portugal to the Monarchy the title changed to East and West Indies, the Islands and Mainland of the Ocean sea.
References
- ^ Geoffrey Parker. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (2000)
- ISBN 0-395-08366-4.
- Rowse, A. L.(1969). Tudor Cornwall: Portrait of a Society. C. Scribner, p. 400
- ^ "One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." The Mariner's Mirror, Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research, 1990
- ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 150.
- ^ "BIEN DE INTERÉS CULTURAL: PALACIO CONDES RIVADAVIA PALACIO DE PIMENTEL". Junta de Castilla y León. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
- ^ James Boyden. Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Modern World.
- ^ Encyclopedia of World Biography (2004).
- ^ Parker, Geoffrey, The Dutch Revolt (1977, rev. ed. 1985). London: Penguin, p. 41.
- ^ Parker, The Dutch Revolt, p. 42.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-4843-0.
- ISBN 978-0-19-923663-3.
- ISBN 0-14-100703-6.
- Luis de Requesens: "You can assure his Holiness that rather than suffer the least injury to religion and the service of God, I would lose all my states and a hundred lives if I had them, for I do not intend to rule over heretics." Pettegree 2002, p. 214.
- ^ Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, vol. 2 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 935–936 and notes.
- ^ Royall Tyler, ed. (1954). "Spain: September 1556". Calendar of State Papers, Spain. Institute of Historical Research. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
- ^ Salvador Miranda (2010). "The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church". Florida International University. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2010.
- ISBN 978-1421401652.
- ^ Jan Glete p. 156
- ^ Nascimiento Rodrigues/Tessaleno Devezas p. 122
- ^ Knecht, French Civil Wars p. 272
- ^ Goubert, Pierre (2002). The Course of French History. Routledge. p. 103.
- JSTOR 2506024
- Biblioteca Nacional de Chile. Retrieved 30 September 2014.
- ^ Relación y derrotero del viaje y descubrimiento del Estrecho de la Madre de Dios – antes llamado de Magallanes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 22 September 2008.
Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, según Amancio Landín, uno de sus más reputados biógrafos, nació en Pontevedra, hacia 1532. Julio Guillén—el marino-académico—, por su parte, dice que es posible fuera Colegial Mayor en la Universidad de Alcalá de Henares, ciudad que fue—asegura—cuna del gran marino español. Este, no ha dejado aclarada la duda sobre su origen geográfico, pues afirmó ser natural de ambos lugares.
- ^ Sarmiento de Gamboa, Pedro (1895). Narratives of the Voyages of Pedro De Gamboa to the Straits of Magellan. Translated by Clements R. Markham. London: Hakluyt Society.
- ^ a b c Martinic 1977, p. 119.
- ^ Martinic 1977, p. 121.
- ^ "History of the Strait of Magellan". 7 April 2017. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
- ISBN 978-1-4721-1329-0.
- . Retrieved 27 January 2016.
- . Retrieved 27 December 2019.
- ^ a b Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 69–70.
- ^ Henk van Nierop, Treason in the Northern Quarter: War, Terror, and the Rule of Law in the Dutch Revolt (Princeton University Press, 2009), 177.
- ^ a b Goodwin, Robert (2015). Spain: The Centre of the World 1519–1682. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 179–180.
- ^ "Twentieth Century Atlas – Historical Body Count". necrometrics.com.
- ^ Sharp Hume, Martín Andrew. The Spanish People: Their Origin, Growth and Influence. p. 372.
- ^ Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1997), 160.
- ^ James Tracy, The Founding of the Dutch Republic: War, Finance, and Politics in Holland, 1572–1588 (Oxford University Press, 2008), 141.
- ISBN 978-0521470339.
- ^ "Victimario Histórico Militar".
- ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). 500 Great Military Leaders. Vol. 1 & 2. p. 19.
- ISBN 0-521-08462-8, p. 35.
- ^ Kamen, Henry, The Duke of Alba, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004.
- ^ Hatton, Barry, Queen of the Sea: A History of Lisbon, London: C. Hurst & Co., 2018, p. 89.
- ^ Adams, George Burton; Stephens, H. Morse, eds. (1901). "An Act for the Marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain". Select Documents of English Constitutional History. MacMillan. p. 284 – via Internet Archive.
- ^ a b c Louis Adrian Montrose, The subject of Elizabeth: authority, gender, and representation, University of Chicago Press, 2006
- ISBN 978-90-04-53621-0.
- ^ A. F. Pollard, The History of England – From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (1547–1603), Read Books, 2007
- ^ Wim de Groot, The Seventh Window: The King's Window Donated by Philip II and Mary Tudor to Sint Janskerk in Gouda (1557), Uitgeverij Verloren, 2005
- ^ Robert Dudley Edwards, Ireland in the age of the Tudors: the destruction of Hiberno-Norman civilisation, Taylor & Francis, 1977
- ^ Treason Act 1554
- ^ Richard Marks, Ann Payne, British Museum, British Library; British heraldry from its origins to c. 1800; British Museum Publications Ltd., 1978
- ^ The Numismatist, American Numismatic Association, 1971
- ^ Francois Velde (25 July 2003). "Text of 1555 Bull". Heraldica.org. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
- ^ Grant, R. G. (2017). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of History. p. 296.
- ^ Tucker, Spencer (2011). Battles that Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 183.
- ^ Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1972). Armada Española desde la Unión de los Reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval de Madrid, Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval, Volume III, Chapter III. Madrid. p. 51
- ^ Koenigsberger, Helmut Georg (2012), Philip II, Encyclopædia Britannica Online, retrieved 31 January 2012
- YouTube(at 21:27 – 21:40). BBC.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4.
- ISBN 84-239-9736-7In the introduction to this work, Felipe is mentioned as the most powerful European monarch by resources and army, depicting Europe at the time as a world full of unsolved issues and religious conflicts
- ISBN 84-239-9736-7. Yet again, the several points of view towards his reign are mentioned in the Introduction.
- ^ Kamen, Henry. Felipe de España, Madrid, Siglo XXI, 1997. Cultural depictions of the king are mentioned, although Kamen tends to place himself with those favouring the king.
- ISBN 84-239-9736-7. He discusses the lack of correspondence of the king because he ordered it burned, thus avoiding any chance of getting further into Philip's private life.
- ^ Vid. Marañón, Gregorio. Antonio Pérez: el hombre, el drama, la época. Madrid, Espasa Calpe, 1951, 2 vols. Judiciously argued review on the harm Perez did to the king, analyzing the king's responsibility on the assassination of Escobedo.
- ^ Johonnot, James. "Ten Great Events in History – Chapter VII. The Invincible Armada". Authorama.com. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
- ^ Hume, Martin. Philip II of Spain, London, 1897. Martin tried to resurrect the prejudiced views concerning the king, as did Carl Bratli in his Filip of Spanien (Koebenhaven, 1909). By contrast, Ludwig Pfandl, in Felipe II. Bosquejo de una vida y un tiempo, Munich, 1938, assessed Philip's personality negatively.
- ^ In Felipe II (Madrid, 1943), W. T. Walsh depicts Felipe's reign as prosperous and successful. Fernández Álvarez, in España y los españoles en la Edad Moderna (Salamanca, 1979), points out how White Legend supporters flourished during the 1940s and 1950s, and how they omitted the darkest issues of Philip's reign.
- ^ Those kinds of adjectives can be read in M. Van Durme's 1953 El Cardenal Granvela.
- ^ Cabrera de Córdoba, Felipe II rey de España, ed. RAH, 1877, criticizes how Felipe's victories are minimised by English historians, and points out the small consequences of defeats such as the Armada.
- ^ Tonio Andrade and William Reger, eds., "Geoffrey Parker and Early Modern History" in The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honor of Geoffrey Parker (Routledge, 2016), p. xxiii.
- ^ Not usually included in lists of monarchs, although legally recognized as co-monarch, as his reign ended de facto with Mary's death.
- ISBN 0226723429.
- ^ ISBN 0-312-33801-5.
- ^ "Treaty of Joinville". (in French) In Davenport, Frances G. European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2004.
- ^ See, inter alia, "Amberes Archived 3 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine" (in Spanish) and Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins[permanent dead link].
- ISBN 0521815614.
- ISBN 978-0190620462.
- ISBN 978-0300196535.
- ^ a b Armstrong, Edward (1911). Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. . In
- ^ ISBN 9780722224731. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
- ^ Wurzbach, Constantin von, ed. (1861). Biographisches Lexikon des Kaiserthums Oesterreich [Biographical Encyclopedia of the Austrian Empire] (in German). Vol. 7. p. 112 – via Wikisource. .
- ^ a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 15 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ a b "Maria (D.). Rainha de Portugal". Portugal - Dicionário Histórico, Corográfico, Heráldico, Biográfico, Bibliográfico, Numismático e Artístico (in Portuguese). Vol. IV. pp. 823–824.
Further reading
- Boyden, James M. The Courtier and the King: Ruy Gómez De Silva, Philip II, and the Court of Spain (University of California Press, 1995).
- Elliott, J. H. Imperial Spain: 1469–1716 (1966).
- Elliott, John H. "The decline of Spain". Past & Present 20 (1961): 52–75.
- Grierson, Edward. The Fatal Inheritance: Philip II and the Spanish Netherlands (1969).
- Gwynn, Aubrey. "A Catholic King: Philip II of Spain". Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, vol. 22, no. 85 (1933), pp. 48–64.
- Hume, M. A. S. Philip II. of Spain (1903).
- Israel, Jonathan. "King Philip II of Spain as a symbol of 'Tyranny'". Co-herencia 15.28 (2018): 137–154.
- Kamen, Henry. Philip of Spain (Yale University Press, 1999), a major scholarly biography. Online free to borrow
- Kelsey, Harry. Philip of Spain, King of England: The Forgotten Sovereign (London, I.B. Tauris, 2011).
- Koenigsberger, H. G. The Habsburgs and Europe, 1516–1660 (1971). Online free to borrow
- López, Anna Santamaría. "'Great Faith is Necessary to Drink from this Chalice': Philip II in the Court of Mary Tudor, 1554–58." in Early Modern Dynastic Marriages and Cultural Transfer ed. by Joan-Lluis Palos and Magdalena S. Sanchez (2017) pp: 115–138.
- Lynch, John. Spain Under the Habsburgs: vol I: Empire and Absolutism: 1516–1598 (1965)
- Lynch, John. "Philip II and the Papacy". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (1961): 23–42.
- Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello.
- Merriman, R. B. The Rise of the Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New (4 vols, 1918). Vol. 4 has in-depth coverage of Philip II.
- Parker, Geoffrey. Imprudent King: A New Life of Philip II (2014), a major scholarly biography.
- Parker, Geoffrey. The Grand Strategy of Philip II (Yale University Press, 1998). online review
- Parker, Geoffrey. Philip II (1995), short scholarly biography
- Parker, Geoffrey. The World is Not Enough: The Imperial Vision of Philip II of Spain (Baylor University Press, 2001).
- Parker, Geoffrey. "The Place of Tudor England in the Messianic Vision of Philip II of Spain". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society (2002): 167–221.
- Patterson, Benton Rain. With the Heart of a King: Elizabeth I of England, Philip II of Spain & the Fight for a Nation's Soul & Crown (2007).
- Petrie, Charles. Philip II of Spain (1963), short scholarly biography.
- Pettegree, Andrew (2002). Europe in the Sixteenth Century. Oxford, England: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-20704-X..
- Pierson, Peter. Philip II of Spain (1975).
- Prescott, William Hickling. A History of the Reign of Philip II, London, Boston, Philadelphia. 1855–1902.
- Redworth, Glyn. "Philip (1527–1598)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edition, May 2011. Retrieved 25 August 2011.
- ISBN 0-19-920502-7.
- Samson, Alexander. Mary and Philip: The Marriage of Tudor England and Habsburg Spain (Manchester University Press, 2020) excerpt.
- Samson, Alexander. "Power Sharing: The Co-monarchy of Philip and Mary", in Tudor Queenship: The Reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, ed. by Alice Hunt and Anna Whitelock (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2010), pp. 159–172.
- Thomas, Hugh. World Without End: The Global Empire of Philip II (Penguin UK, 2014); World Without End: Spain, Philip II, and the First Global Empire (Random House, 2015) popular history.
- Waxman, Matthew C. "Strategic Terror: Philip II and Sixteenth-Century Warfare". War in History, vol. 4, no. 3 (1997): 339–347.
- Williams, Patrick. Philip II (Macmillan International Higher Education, 2017), a scholarly biography; excerpt
Economic and cultural history
- Braudel, Fernand. The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (2 vols., 1976) vol. 1 free to borrow
- Clouse, Michele L. Medicine, Government and Public Health in Philip II's Spain: Shared Interests, Competing Authorities (Ashgate, 2013).
- Conklin, James. "The Theory of Sovereign Debt and Spain under Philip II". Journal of Political Economy 106.3 (1998): 483–513, statistical
- Drelichman, Mauricio, and Hans-Joachim Voth. Lending to the Borrower from Hell: Debt, Taxes, and Default in the Age of Philip II (Princeton University Press, 2016).
- Goodman, David. "Philip II's Patronage of Science and Engineering". British Journal for the History of Science 16.1 (1983): 49–66.
- Henriques, Antonio, and Nuno Pedro G. Palma. "Comparative European Institutions and the Little Divergence, 1385–1800" Archived 19 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine. (2019), economics
- Kagan, Richard L. "Philip II and the Art of the Cityscape". Journal of Interdisciplinary History 17.1 (1986): 115–135.
- Lazure, Guy. "Possessing the Sacred: Monarchy and Identity in Philip II's Relic Collection at the Escorial". Renaissance Quarterly 60.1 (2007): 58–93.
- Matthews, P. G. "Portraits of Philip II of Spain as King of England". Burlington Magazine 142.1162 (2000): 13–19.
- Miller, Stephanie R. "A Tale of Two Portraits: Titian's Seated Portraits of Philip II". Visual Resources 28.1 (2012): 103–116.
- Samson, Alexander. "Changing Places: The Marriage and Royal Entry of Philip, Prince of Austria, and Mary Tudor, July-August 1554"[dead link]. Sixteenth Century Journal (2005): 761–784.
- Scully, Robert E. "'In the Confident Hope of a Miracle': The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century". Catholic Historical Review 89.4 (2003): 643–670.
- Wilkinson-Zerner, Catherine. Juan de Herrera: Architect to Philip II of Spain (Yale University Press, 1993).
External links
- Letters of Philip II, King of Spain 1592–1597, online edition at Brigham Young University
- Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XVIII (9th ed.). 1885. pp. 743–746. .
- Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. .
- Portraits of Philip II, King of Spain at the National Portrait Gallery, London