Integrated circuit
An integrated circuit, also known as a microchip, chip or IC, is a small electronic device made up of multiple interconnected electronic components such as transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components are etched onto a small piece of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Integrated circuits are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, smartphones, and televisions, to perform various functions such as processing and storing information. They have greatly impacted the field of electronics by enabling device miniaturization and enhanced functionality.
Integrated circuits are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and less expensive than those constructed of discrete components, allowing a large transistor count.
The IC's
ICs have three main advantages over circuits constructed out of discrete components: size, cost and performance. The size and cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size and proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost of designing them and the enormous capital cost of factory construction. This high initial cost means ICs are only commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.
Terminology
An integrated circuit is defined as: An early attempt at combining several components in one device (like modern ICs) was the Loewe 3NF vacuum tube first made in 1926.[4][5] Unlike ICs, it was designed with the purpose of tax avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers had a tax that was levied depending on how many tube holders a radio receiver had. It allowed radio receivers to have a single tube holder. One million were manufactured, and were "a first step in integration of radioelectronic devices".[6] The device contained an amplifier, composed of three triodes, two capacitors and four resistors in a six-pin device.[7]
Early concepts of an integrated circuit go back to 1949, when German engineer History
Another early proponent of the concept was
The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar process by Jean Hoerni and p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was built on Mohamed M. Atalla's work on surface passivation, as well as Fuller and Ditzenberger's work on the diffusion of boron and phosphorus impurities into silicon, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick's work on surface protection, and Chih-Tang Sah's work on diffusion masking by the oxide.[12]
The first integrated circuits
A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic substrates (so-called micromodules),[13] each containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby[13] and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).[13][14][15] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC.
Newly employed by
However, Kilby's invention was not a true monolithic integrated circuit chip since it had external gold-wire connections, which would have made it difficult to mass-produce.[21] Half a year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC chip.[22][21] More practical than Kilby's implementation, Noyce's chip was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's was made of germanium, and Noyce's was fabricated using the planar process, developed in early 1959 by his colleague Jean Hoerni and included the critical on-chip aluminum interconnecting lines. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic IC,[22][21] rather than Kilby's.
NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961 and 1965.[23]
TTL integrated circuits
Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW Inc. TTL became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early 1980s.[24]
Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the
MOS integrated circuits
Nearly all modern IC chips are
The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at
Following the development of the
At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as
Advances in IC technology, primarily
The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems.[43]
Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of other technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost. These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.
- Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active-pixel sensors, are chips that are sensitive to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical, and consumer applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for applications such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the Nobel Prize in 2009.[44]
- Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a technology known as MEMS gyroscopes used to deploy automobile airbags.
- Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.[46] Photonic integrated circuits that use light such as Lightelligence's PACE (Photonic Arithmetic Computing Engine) also being developed, using the emerging field of physics known as photonics.[47]
- Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or other bioelectronic devices.[48] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such biogenic environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor materials.[49]
As of 2018[update], the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one side of a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as:
- various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional integrated circuit (3DIC), such as through-silicon via, "monolithic 3D",[50] stacked wire bonding,[51] and other methodologies.
- transistors built from other materials: graphene transistors, molybdenite transistors, carbon nanotube field-effect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like nanowire electronic devices, organic field-effect transistor, etc.
- fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.[52][53]
- modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible display or other flexible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away computer.
As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using
Design
The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the multiple tens of millions of dollars.[63][64] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering
Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are far too complex to be designed by hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential.
Types
Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into
consisting of analog and digital signaling on the same IC.Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[42] of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to process "one" and "zero" signals.
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the
In the 1980s,
Analog ICs, such as
ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to create functions such as
Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits:
- power management ICs, and programmable devices.
- RF circuits (radio frequencycircuits).
- D/A converters, digital potentiometers), clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor (SC) circuits, and RF CMOScircuits.
- Three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) are categorized into through-silicon via (TSV) ICs and Cu-Cu connection ICs.
Manufacturing
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2022) |
Fabrication
The
Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them. Dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electronic properties. Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.
- Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (doped polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers.
- In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer (this is called "the self-aligned gate").[72]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1)
- parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the "plates", with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs.
- Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip logic circuitsdo not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance.
- More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators.
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the
A
Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as
As of 2022[update], a
- The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).
- As of 2022[update], 5 nm transistors.
- Copper interconnectswhere copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects.
- Low-κ dielectric insulators.
- Silicon on insulator (SOI).
- Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as Strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI).
- Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors.
ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using the foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that design, manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing (foundry) services to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry model, fabless companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing to pure play foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services.
Packaging
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic
In the late 1990s,
Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for a much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package, the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. BGA devices have the advantage of not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder to replace in case of device failure.
Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with the last PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018[update], AMD uses PGA packages on mainstream desktop processors,[76] BGA packages on mobile processors,[77] and high-end desktop and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[78]
Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die to the package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads connecting the package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and structures used in the path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical properties, compared to those that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they require special design techniques to ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more electric power than signals confined to the die itself.
When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a
Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturer's lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.
The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983.
Intellectual property
The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing
A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C., in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,
There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743, US3,261,081, US3,434,015 and by R.F. Stewart US3,138,747.
National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, including Japan,
Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are summarized in further chip rights developments.[84]
Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[85] Korea passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in 1992.[86]
Generations
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to only a few
Acronym | Name | Year | Transistor count[88] | Logic gates number[89] |
---|---|---|---|---|
SSI | small-scale integration | 1964 | 1 to 10 | 1 to 12 |
MSI | medium-scale integration | 1968 | 10 to 500 | 13 to 99 |
LSI | large-scale integration | 1971 | 500 to 20 000 | 100 to 9999 |
VLSI | very large-scale integration |
1980 | 20 000 to 1 000 000 | 10 000 to 99 999 |
ULSI | ultra-large-scale integration | 1984 | 1 000 000 and more | 100 000 and more |
Small-scale integration (SSI)
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing tens of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[90] that term gave rise to the terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large-scale integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated circuits were SSI.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[91] it was the Minuteman missile that forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United States Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and by 1968, U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312 million total production.
The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until costs fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the
The first application
Medium-scale integration (MSI)
The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).
In 1964,
Large-scale integration (LSI)
Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors, led to "large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.[98]
The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape or similar.[99] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team of engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness and completeness of each mask.
Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
"Very-large-scale integration" (
Multiple developments were required to achieve this increased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The path of process improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), which has since been succeeded by the International Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). Electronic design tools improved, making it practical to finish designs in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. The complexity and density of modern VLSI devices made it no longer feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA tools to perform most functional verification work.[100]
In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989, and the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[101] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[102]
ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[103]
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.[104][105]
A
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation.[107]
Silicon labeling and graffiti
To allow identification during production, most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon doodling.[citation needed]
ICs and IC families
- The 555 timer IC
- The Operational amplifier
- 7400-series integrated circuits
- 4000-series integrated circuits, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00 series)
- i486, etc.
- The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the early 1980s
- The 88000 series (the 68000 series was very successful and was used in the Apple Lisa and pre-PowerPC-based Macintosh, Commodore Amiga, Atari ST/TT/Falcon030, and NeXT families of computers, along with many models of workstations and servers from many manufacturers in the 80s, along with many other systems and devices)
- The LM-series of analog integrated circuits
See also
- Central processing unit
- Chip carrier
- CHIPS and Science Act
- Chipset
- Czochralski method
- Dark silicon
- Ion implantation
- Integrated injection logic
- Integrated passive devices
- Interconnect bottleneck
- Heat generation in integrated circuits
- High-temperature operating life
- Microelectronics
- Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
- Multi-threshold CMOS
- Silicon–germanium
- Sound chip
- SPICE
- Thermal simulations for integrated circuits
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- S2CID 19237178.
- ^ US patent 4866501, Shanefield, Daniel, "Wafer scale integration", published 1985
- ^ Edwards, Benj (14 November 2022). "Hungry for AI? New supercomputer contains 16 dinner-plate-size chips". Ars Technica.
- ^ US patent 6816750, Klaas, Jeff, "System-on-a-chip", published 2000
- S2CID 18432328.
Further reading
- Veendrick, H.J.M. (2017). Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs. Springer. OCLC 990149326.
- Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-IEEE. OCLC 699889340.
- Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical MMIC design. Artech House. OCLC 1261968369.
- Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing Analog Chips (PDF). Virtual Bookworm. invented the 555 timer
- Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh, Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill. OCLC 840380650.
- Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (2nd ed.). Pearson. OCLC 893541089.
- Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991). Introduction to VLSI systems. Addison Wesley Publishing Company. OCLC 634332043.
External links
- Media related to Integrated circuits at Wikimedia Commons
- The first monolithic integrated circuits
- A large chart listing ICs by generic number including access to most of the datasheets for the parts.
- The History of the Integrated Circuit