Human food

Human food is food which is fit for human consumption, and which humans willingly eat. Food is a basic necessity of life, and humans typically seek food out as an instinctual response to hunger; however, not all things that are edible constitute as human food.

Humans eat various substances for energy, enjoyment and

Humans eat thousands of plant species; there may be as many as 75,000 edible species of

Fish and other marine animals are harvested from lakes, rivers, wetlands, inland waters, coasts, estuaries, mangroves, near-shore areas, and marine and ocean waters. Although aquatic foods contribute significantly to the health of billions of people around the world, they tend to be undervalued nutritionally, primarily because their diversity is framed in a monolithic way as "seafood or fish." Worldwide, aquatic foods are available every season and are produced in a wide variety. Over 2,370 species are harvested from wild fisheries, and about 624 are farmed in aquaculture. Fish powder for infants, fish wafers for snacks, and fish chutneys have all been developed because marine foods are nutrient-dense.[17]

Taste perception

Some animals, specifically humans, have five different types of tastes:

Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste,

In the natural settings that human primate ancestors evolved in, sweetness intensity should indicate energy density, while bitterness tends to indicate toxicity.^[21][22][23] The high sweetness detection threshold and low bitterness detection threshold would have predisposed our primate ancestors to seek out sweet-tasting (and energy-dense) foods and avoid bitter-tasting foods.^[24]

Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose are used to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensation of sweetness, without the energy. The stevia plant contains a compound known as steviol which, when extracted, has 300 times the sweetness of sugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar.^[25]

Sour

Other than enhancing flavour, salty foods are significant for body needs and maintaining a delicate electrolyte balance, which is the kidney's function. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been added to it. Iodine is a necessary nutrient for maintenance of thyroid function, and the addition of iodine to salt became a public-health practice in the mid 20th century to prevent iodine deficiency and relate diseases such as endemic goitre.^[27][28]

Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths, tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the food longer. Historically salt has long been used as a meat preservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly, dried foods also promote food safety.

Bitter

Umami has been described as savoury and is characteristic of broths and cooked meats.^{[29][30][31][32]: 35–36} Foods that have a strong umami flavor include meats, shellfish, fish (including fish sauce and preserved fish such as Maldives fish, sardines, and anchovies), tomatoes, mushrooms, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, meat extract, yeast extract, cheeses, and soy sauce.

Cuisine

Many scholars claim that the rhetorical function of food is to represent the culture of a country and that it can be used as a form of communication. According to Goode, Curtis and Theophano, food "is the last aspect of an ethnic culture to be lost".^[33]

Many cultures have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions using various spices or a combination of flavours unique to that culture, which evolves. Other differences include preferences (hot or cold, spicy, etc.) and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by utilizing preparation, cooking methods, and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by way of food, not just by consumption.

Some popular types of

Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presentations can encourage people to consume food. A common saying is that people "eat with their eyes". Food presented in a clean and appetizing way will encourage a good flavour, even if unsatisfactory.^[34][35]

While many foods can be eaten raw, many also undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, texture, or flavour. At the simplest level, this may involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.^[37]

Animal preparation

The preparation of animal-based food usually involves

On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts, and pre-wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fishmonger. However, fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for the preservation of the quality.^[39]

Raw food preparation

Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foods in a

The term "cooking" encompasses a vast range of methods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improve the flavour or digestibility of food. Cooking technique, known as

Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually, though not always, chemically changes the molecules, thus changing its flavour, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties.^[45] Cooking certain proteins, such as egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein, causing it to become firm. There is archaeological evidence of roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites dating from 420,000 years ago.^[46] Boiling as a means of cooking requires a container, and has been practised at least since the 10th millennium BC with the introduction of pottery.^[47]

Cooking equipment

There are many different types of equipment used for cooking.

Restaurants employ chefs to prepare the food, and waiters to serve customers at the table.^[53] The term restaurant comes from an old term for a restorative meat broth; this broth (or bouillon) was served in elegant outlets in Paris from the mid 18th century.^[54][55] These refined "restaurants" were a marked change from the usual basic eateries such as inns and taverns,^[55] and some had developed from early Parisian cafés, such as Café Procope, by first serving bouillon, then adding other cooked food to their menus.^[56]

Commercial eateries existed during the

value chains

that effect many parts of the global economy.

Production

Main articles: Agriculture, Food industry, and Genetically modified food

Most food has always been obtained through agriculture. With increasing concern over both the methods and products of modern industrial agriculture, there has been a growing trend toward sustainable agricultural practices. This approach, partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and organic farming methods.^[60] Major influences on food production include international organizations (e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or law), and war.^[61]

Several organisations have begun calling for a new kind of agriculture in which

flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, erosion control and habitats for plants, birds, fish and other animals.^[62]

Food manufacturing

Main article:

Food manufacture

Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home for purchase. This can be as simple as a

labeling, and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ domestic servants.^[65]

At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well-known food brands. There also exists a wide array of small local or national food processing companies.[66] Advanced technologies have also come to change food manufacturing. Computer-based control systems, sophisticated processing and packaging methods, and logistics and distribution advances can enhance product quality, improve food safety, and reduce costs.^[65]

International food imports and exports

See also: Population density

The World Bank reported that the European Union was the top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance by the US and Japan. Britain's need for food was especially well-illustrated in World War II. Despite the implementation of food rationing, Britain remained dependent on food imports and the result was a long-term engagement in the Battle of the Atlantic.

Food is traded and marketed on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing season.^[67] Between 1961 and 1999, there was a 400% increase in worldwide food exports.^[68] Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.^[69]

In 1994, over 100 countries became signatories to the

quotas, and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.^[70] Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the Codex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in 1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization. Trade liberalization has greatly affected world food trade.^[71]

Marketing and retailing

Main article: Food marketing

Food marketing brings together the producer and the consumer. The marketing of even a single food product can be a complicated process involving many producers and companies. For example, 56 companies are involved in making one can of chicken noodle soup. These businesses include not only chicken and vegetable processors but also the companies that transport the ingredients and those that print labels and manufacture cans.^[72] The food marketing system is the largest direct and indirect non-government employer in the United States.

In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day into the local village marketplace. Here food was sold to

grocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by local consumers.^[44][65] With the onset of industrialization and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be counter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.^[44][73]

In the 20th century,

self service approach to shopping using shopping carts and were able to offer quality food at lower cost through economies of scale and reduced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century, this has been further revolutionized by the development of vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, selling a wide range of food from around the world.^[74]

Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large companies control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goes to farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising, transportation, and intermediate corporations.^[75]

Access

Access to food is an economical and a sociological issue. Disadvantaged people typically live further away from providers of healthy food than the middle class. A study of 94 million visits to food retailers showed that Americans travel a median distance of 5.95 km (3.7 miles) each time they buy food.^[76]

Prices

This section is an excerpt from Food prices.[edit]

Food prices refer to the average price level for food across countries, regions and on a global scale.^[77] Food prices affect producers and consumers of food. Price levels depend on the food production process, including food marketing and food distribution. Fluctuation in food prices is determined by a number of compounding factors.^[78] Geopolitical events, global demand, exchange rates,^[79] government policy, diseases and crop yield, energy costs, availability of natural resources for agriculture,^[80] food speculation,^[81][82][83] changes in the use of soil and weather events directly affect food prices.^[84] To a certain extent, adverse price trends can be counteracted by food politics.

The consequences of food price fluctuation are multiple. Increases in food prices, or

developing countries, and can cause social unrest.^[85][86][87] Increases in food prices is related to disparities in diet quality and health,^[88] particularly among vulnerable populations, such as women and children.^[89]

Food prices will on average continue to rise due to a variety of reasons. Growing world population will put more pressure on the supply and demand. Climate change will increase extreme weather events, including droughts, storms and heavy rain, and overall increases in temperature will affect food production.^[90]

An intervention to reduce food loss or waste, if sufficiently large, will affect prices upstream and downstream in the supply chain relative to where the intervention occurred.^[91] "The CPI (Consumer Price Index) for all food increased 0.8% from July 2022 to August 2022, and food prices were 11.4% higher than in August 2021."^[92]

As investment

This section is an excerpt from Food speculation.[edit]

soy – even though too large price swings in an idealized economy are theoretically ruled out: Adam Smith in 1776 reasoned that the only way to make money from commodities trading is by buying low and selling high, which has the effect of smoothing out price swings and mitigating shortages.^[93][94] For the actors, the apparently random swings are predictable, which means potential huge profits. For the global poor, food speculation and resulting price peaks may result in increased poverty or even famine.^[95]

In contrast to food

trading activity.^[96]

Food speculation may be a reason for

2007–08 world food price crisis is thought to have been be partially caused by speculation.^[96][98][99]

Problems

USDA

nutrition guide.

Because of its centrality to human life, problems related to access, quality and production of food effect every aspect of human life.

Nutrition and dietary problems

Between the extremes of optimal health and death from

cardiovascular diseases

as well as psychological and behavioral problems. The science of nutrition attempts to understand how and why specific dietary aspects influence health.

Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories. Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Micronutrients are the

vitamins. Additionally, food contains water and dietary fiber

.

As previously discussed, the body is designed by natural selection to enjoy sweet and fattening foods for evolutionary diets, ideal for hunters and gatherers. Thus, sweet and fattening foods in nature are typically rare and are very pleasurable to eat. In modern times these foods are easily available to consumers, which promotes obesity in adults and children alike.

Hunger and starvation

Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimately starvation. This is often connected with famine, which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.^[61]

Starvation is a significant international problem. Approximately 815 million people are undernourished, and over 16,000 children die per day from hunger-related causes.^[100] Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in Maslow's hierarchy of needs and is measured using famine scales.^[101]

Food waste

This section is an excerpt from Food loss and waste.[edit]

retail.^[105]

Food loss and waste is a major part of the

phosphate mining. Moreover, reducing food waste in all parts of the food system is an important part of reducing the environmental impact of agriculture, by reducing the total amount of water, land

, and other resources used.

The UN's Sustainable Development Goal Target 12.3 seeks to "halve global per capita food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses" by 2030.^[110] Climate change mitigation strategies prominently feature reducing food waste.^[111] In the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference nations agree to reduce food waste by 50% by the year 2030.^[112]

Policy

This section is an excerpt from Food policy.[edit]

food labeling, and even the qualifications of a product to be considered organic.^[113]

Most food policy is initiated at the domestic level for purposes of ensuring a safe and adequate food supply for the

developing nation, there are three main objectives for food policy: to protect the poor from crises, to develop long-run markets that enhance efficient resource use, and to increase food production that will in turn promote an increase in income.^[115]

Food policy comprises the mechanisms by which food-related matters are addressed or administered by governments, including international bodies or networks, and by public institutions or private organizations. Agricultural producers often bear the burden of governments' desire to keep food prices sufficiently low for growing urban populations. Low prices for consumers can be a disincentive for farmers to produce more food, often resulting in hunger, poor trade prospects, and an increased need for food imports.^[114]

In a more developed country such as the United States, food and nutrition policy must be viewed in context with regional and national economic concerns, environmental pressures, maintenance of a social safety net, health, encouragement of private enterprise and innovation, and an agrarian landscape dominated by fewer, larger mechanized farms.^[116] Industrialized countries strive to ensure that farmers earn relatively stable incomes despite price and supply fluctuations and adverse weather events. The cost of subsidizing farm incomes is passed along to consumers in the form of higher food prices.^[114]

Legal definition

Some countries list a legal definition of food, often referring them with the word foodstuff. These countries list food as any item that is to be processed, partially processed, or unprocessed for consumption. The listing of items included as food includes any substance intended to be, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. In addition to these foodstuffs, drink,

psychotropic substances, and residues and contaminants.^[117]

Right to food

This section is an excerpt from Right to food.[edit]

The

food insecurity, and malnutrition.^[121] The right to food implies that governments only have an obligation to hand out enough free food to starving recipients to ensure subsistence, it does not imply a universal right to be fed. Also, if people are deprived of access to food for reasons beyond their control, for example, because they are in detention, in times of war or after natural disasters, the right requires the government to provide food directly.^[122]

The right is derived from the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights^[122] which has 170 state parties as of April 2020.^[119] States that sign the covenant agree to take steps to the maximum of their available resources to achieve progressively the full realization of the right to adequate food, both nationally and internationally.^[123][121] In a total of 106 countries the right to food is applicable either via constitutional arrangements of various forms or via direct applicability in law of various international treaties in which the right to food is protected.^[124]

At the 1996 World Food Summit, governments reaffirmed the right to food and committed themselves to halve the number of hungry and malnourished from 840 to 420 million by 2015. However, the number has increased over the past years, reaching an infamous record in 2009 of more than 1 billion undernourished people worldwide.^[121] Furthermore, the number who suffer from hidden hunger – micronutrient deficiences that may cause stunted bodily and intellectual growth in children – amounts to over 2 billion people worldwide.^[125]

Whilst under international law, states are obliged to respect, protect and fulfill the right to food, the practical difficulties in achieving this human right are demonstrated by prevalent food insecurity across the world, and ongoing litigation in countries such as India.^[126][127] In the continents with the biggest food-related problems – Africa, Asia and South America – not only is there shortage of food and lack of infrastructure but also maldistribution and inadequate access to food.^[128]

The Human Rights Measurement Initiative^[129] measures the right to food for countries around the world, based on their level of income.^[130]

Food security

This section is an excerpt from Food security.[edit]

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender or religion is another element of food security. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life.^[131] Individuals who are food-secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.^[132] Food security includes resilience to future disruption of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.^[133] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

The concept of food security has evolved over time. The four pillars of food security include availability, access, utilization, and stability.^[134] In addition, there are two more dimensions that are important: agency and sustainability. These six dimensions of food security are reinforced in conceptual and legal understandings of the right to food.^[135][136] The World Food Summit in 1996 declared that "food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure."^[137][138]

There are many possible causes to food insecurity. The most important ones are high food prices and disruption in global food supplies for example due to war. There is also climate change, water scarcity, land degradation, agricultural diseases, pandemics and disease outbreaks that can all lead to food insecurity.

The effects of food insecurity can include

Human populations can respond to chronic hunger and malnutrition by decreasing body size of children, known in medical terms as stunting or stunted growth.^[140] Once stunting has occurred, improved nutritional intake after the age of about two years is unable to reverse the damage. Severe malnutrition in early childhood often leads to defects in cognitive development.^[141]

International aid

Main article:

Food aid

Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. It can be used to improve peoples' lives in the short term, so that a society can increase its standard of living to the point that food aid is no longer required.^[142] Conversely, badly managed food aid can create problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and discouraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of food aid dependence can develop.^[143] Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the policies of the destination country, a strategy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid provisions will require certain types of food be purchased from certain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhance the markets of donor countries.^[144] International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are often coordinated by the World Food Programme.^[145]

Safety

Main article: Food safety

chicken eggs

.

parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.^[146] The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as "foreign bodies") during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. Certain types of food can become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.^[146]

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks.^[149]

Recommended measures for ensuring food safety include maintaining a clean preparation area with foods of different types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cooking temperature, and refrigerating foods promptly after cooking.[150]

Foods that spoil easily, such as

meats, dairy, and seafood, must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating the people for whom they are prepared. As such, the rule of thumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) should be kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kept hot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are to be cooked should not be placed at room temperature for thawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, such as Salmonella or E. coli.^[151]

Allergies

Main article: Food allergy

Some people have

soy.^[152] Allergens frequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes, bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the allergen.^[152]

Rarely, food allergies can lead to a

Twinject.^[153][154]

Other health issues

Human diet was estimated to cause perhaps around 35% of

cured meat such as bacon.^[156]

Anticarcinogens that may help prevent cancer can also be found in many food especially fruit and vegetables. Antioxidants are important groups of compounds that may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It is however often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase or decrease cancer risk since many food, such as beef steak and broccoli, contain low concentrations of both carcinogens and anticarcinogens.^[156] There are many international certifications in the cooking field, such as Monde Selection, A.A. Certification, iTQi. They use high-quality evaluation methods to make the food safer.

Diet

Main article: Diet (nutrition)

Cultural and religious diets

Many cultures hold some food preferences and some food

kosher foods are permitted by Judaism, halal foods by Islam, and in Hinduism beef is restricted.^[160] In addition, the dietary choices of different countries or regions have different characteristics. This is highly related to a culture's cuisine

.

Diet deficiencies

Main article:

Avitaminosis

Dietary habits play a significant role in the health and mortality of all humans. Imbalances between the consumed fuels and expended energy results in either starvation or excessive reserves of

adipose tissue, known as body fat.^[161] Poor intake of various vitamins and minerals can lead to diseases that can have far-reaching effects on health. For instance, 30% of the world's population either has, or is at risk for developing, iodine deficiency.^[162] It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blind due to vitamin A deficiency.^[163] Vitamin C deficiency results in scurvy.^[164] Calcium, vitamin D, and phosphorus are inter-related; the consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.^[165]

Moral, ethical, and health-conscious diets

Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasons of morality or other habits. For instance,

heart disease, diabetes, cancer and many other diseases.^[167] More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about possible impacts on health or the environment from genetically modified food.^[168] Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming (grains) on animal welfare, human health, and the environment are also affecting contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a movement with a preference for organic and local food.^[169]

History

Main articles: Timeline of food, Food history, and Culinary arts § History

See also

• Bulk foods
• Beverages
• Food and Bioprocess Technology
• Food engineering
• Food, Inc., a 2009 documentary
• Food science
• Future food technology
• Industrial crop
• List of foods
• Lists of prepared foods
• Optimal foraging theory
• Outline of cooking
• Outline of nutrition
• Right to food by country

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Further reading

• Collingham, E.M. (2011). The Taste of War: World War Two and the Battle for Food
• Katz, Solomon (2003). The Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, Scribner
• Nestle, Marion (2007). Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health, University Presses of California, revised and expanded edition,
  ISBN 0-520-25403-1
• Mobbs, Michael (2012). Sustainable Food Sydney: NewSouth Publishing,
  ISBN 978-1-920705-54-1
• Simmonds, Peter Lund (1859). The dainties and delicacies of different nations obtained from the animal kingdom. London: Richard Bentley.
• The Future of Food (2015). A panel discussion at the 2015
  urban farming, ecosystems, technology, food supply chains and their broad environmental and humanitarian implications, and how these changes in food production may change what people may find delicious ... and the other way around." Posted on the official YouTube Channel of DLD

External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Cookbook

Wikiquote has quotations related to Human food.

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Human food.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Human food

• The dictionary definition of human food at Wiktionary
• Media related to food at Wikimedia Commons
• Food Timeline
• Wikibooks Cookbook
• Food, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Rebecca Spang, Ivan Day and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto (In Our Time, 27 December 2001)