List of irredentist claims or disputes

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

For proposed mergers of sovereign states, see List of proposed state mergers.

Main article: Irredentism

This is a list of irredentist claims or disputes. Irredentism is any political or popular movement that seeks to claim or reclaim and occupy a land that the movement's members consider to be a "lost" (or "unredeemed") territory from their nation's past. Not all

irredentist
claim is sometimes contentious.

Current governmental irredentist claims

Argentina

See also: Argentine irredentism and Falkland Islands sovereignty dispute
Argentina with all its territorial claims

Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. The viceroyalty began to dissolve into separate independent states in the early 19th century, one of which later became Argentina.[1] The claims included, amongst other areas, parts of what in 2019 were Chile, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and Bolivia. Some of these claims have been settled, although others are still active. The active claims include part of the land border with Chile, a section of the Antarctic continent, and the British South Atlantic islands, including the Falklands.[2]

Argentina renews these claims periodically.

amended in 1994:[4][5]

The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the Malvinas, Georgias del Sur and Sandwich del Sur Islands and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the National territory. The recovery of these territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respecting the way of life for its inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, constitute a permanent and unwavering goal of the Argentine people.

Bolivia

Further information:
Atacama border dispute
Bolivian irredentism over losses in the War of the Pacific (1879–1884): "What once was ours, will be ours once again", and "Hold on rotos (Chileans), because here come the Colorados of Bolivia"

The

landlocked country. The lost Atacama region is a source of conflict in the two countries' relations.[7][8] Every year, Bolivians celebrate the Día del Mar (Day of the Sea) in observance of the lost territories.[9]

China (PRC)

Main articles: Chinese irredentism, Two Chinas, Chinese unification, Greater China, and Nine-dash line

The preamble to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states, "Taiwan is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China (PRC). It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland." The PRC's claim to sovereignty over Taiwan is generally based on the theory of the succession of states, with the PRC claiming that it is the successor state to the Republic of China (ROC).[10]

However, the People's Republic of China (PRC) has never controlled Taiwan.[11] The ROC government formerly administered both mainland China and Taiwan but has been administering primarily Taiwan only, since the Chinese Civil War in which it fought the People's Liberation Army of the Chinese Communist Party. While the official name of the state remains the 'Republic of China', the country is commonly called 'Taiwan', as Taiwan makes up 99% of the controlled territory of the ROC.

China (ROC)

Main articles: Chinese irredentism, Two Chinas, Chinese unification, and Greater China
Territories controlled by the Republic of China (ROC) (orange) and the People's Republic of China (PRC) (purple).

The Qing dynasty of China ceded Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to the Empire of Japan in perpetuity in the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895, along with the Liaodong Peninsula.[12] The Republic of Formosa was a short-lived republic[13][14] that then existed on the island of Taiwan for about five months in 1895 in the period between the formal cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan and de facto Japanese occupation and control. Japan then established a colony on Taiwan that existed until control of Taiwan was ceded to the Nationalist Government of the Republic of China in 1945.[15]

Article 4 of the

status quo', the ROC has not renounced claims over the territories currently controlled by the PRC, Mongolia, India, Russia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bhutan, North Korea and some Central Asian states. However, the ROC does not actively pursue these claims in practice; the remaining claims that the ROC is actively seeking are of uninhabited islands: the Senkaku Islands, whose sovereignty is also asserted by Japan and is part of Ishigaki, Okinawa. As far as the Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands in the South China Sea are concerned, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, and Vietnam have repeatedly claimed sovereignty over some or most of these islands, rejecting the Chinese claimed "Nine-dash line
".

Comoros

Article 1 of the Constitution of the Union of the Comoros begins: "The Union of the Comoros is a republic, composed of the autonomous islands of Mohéli, Mayotte, Anjouan, and Grande Comore." Mayotte, geographically a part of the Comoro Islands, was the only island of the four to vote against independence from France (independence losing 37%–63%) in the referendum held December 22, 1974. Mayotte is currently a department of the French Republic.[16][17]

Guatemala

Main article: Belizean–Guatemalan territorial dispute

Guatemala has claimed Belize in whole or in part since 1821.

India, Pakistan and China

Main article: Kashmir conflict
Map showing disputed areas of India

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948. Since then, the two countries have fought multiple wars over the issue, but neither side has managed to capture and control the entire region. China became involved in the conflict in 1962, after consolidating control over what had been Indian-administered territory in Kashmir during the Sino-Indian War
.

In practice, the zones of control in Kashmir remain divided into three disputed parts, with India and Pakistan separated by the Line of Control and India and China separated by the Line of Actual Control. India claims the entire region on the basis of the Instrument of Accession signed with Kashmir's king in 1947; Pakistan claims only the Indian-controlled parts of Kashmir, having signed the Sino-Pakistan Agreement in 1963; and Chinese claims are limited to parts of Indian-controlled territory, not including areas claimed by Pakistan. The official government maps of these countries generally accommodate these territorial claims by including the appropriate disputed lands within their borders.

Israel and Palestine

Main articles:
Greater Palestine
Israel and Israeli-occupied territories

In November 1947, the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was adopted with 72% in-favour votes, aiming to split the territory of the region into a Jewish state and an Arab state. However, this plan was never implemented—the Israeli Declaration of Independence had been rejected by the Arab League and ultimately led to the 1948 Palestine war. This war led to the emergence of three zones of control: Israel, an independent Jewish state; the West Bank, annexed by Jordan; and the Gaza Strip, occupied by Egypt. Israel's founding ideology, the Zionist movement, had claimed the territory as the Jewish homeland; these claims are based on the Jews' ancestral habitation and periodic sovereignty in the land as well as the cultural/religious significance of that region as expressed in the Hebrew Bible. The latter is particularly relevant to the Israeli claim to Jerusalem—Israel controlled only half of the city (West Jerusalem) after its independence, with the other half (East Jerusalem) coming under Jordanian control.

In a historical or religious context, many Jews commonly refer to the West Bank as Judea and Samaria (the biblical terms), which formed a large part of the ancient Kingdom of Israel. Following the outbreak of the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel captured the Jordanian-annexed West Bank and the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip, in addition to the Syrian Golan Heights and the Egyptian Sinai Peninsula. Since 1967, Israeli settlements have been established throughout these Israeli-occupied territories, which are regarded as having historical and religious significance to the Jewish people and strategic significance to the Israeli state. Israel withdrew from Gaza in 2005, but the Israeli occupation of the West Bank continues, though the Israeli government has never explicitly claimed sovereignty over any part of that territory apart from East Jerusalem, which it effectively annexed in 1967. The Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Golan Heights, which were unilaterally annexed by Israel in 1981, are usually supported by the Israeli government and protected by the Israeli military, drawing condemnation from the international community as an obstacle to the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. Though the Gazan Israeli settlements were dismantled in 2005, Israel is still regarded as an occupying power over the Gaza Strip under international law and will remain accountable for the territory until the Egyptian–Israeli blockade of Gaza is lifted.

In 1980, Israel passed the

"Areas" of the West Bank that were specified by the Oslo Accords. Since 2007, Hamas has administered the Gaza Strip, further isolating it from the West Bank and splitting the Palestinian territories between two separate governments. The Palestinian Authority claims the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (the "1967 borders") as the territory for an independent Palestinian state; Hamas, which does not recognize Israeli sovereignty, claims the entirety of the former British Mandate
as the territory for an independent Palestinian state.

Since 1967, there has been support among right-wing Israelis for a

Greater Palestine"; the country bordered the British Mandate as a British protectorate, known as the Emirate of Transjordan, until achieving independence in 1946. Jordan claimed sovereignty over the West Bank between 1950 and 1988, when this claim was renounced in light of the upcoming Israel–Jordan peace treaty
.

Japan

Main article: Territorial disputes of Japan

Japan claims the four southernmost islands of the Russian-administered Kuril Islands, the island chain north of Hokkaido, annexed by the Soviet Union following World War II with the treaty of San Francisco. Japan also claims the South Korean-administered Liancourt Rocks, which are known as Dokdo in Korea and as Takeshima in Japan and have been claimed since the end of the Second World War.

Philippines

Main article: North Borneo dispute

The Philippines claim portions of North Borneo as part of its territory, which is administered as part of Malaysia's Sabah state. The Philippines' irredentist claim is based on the disputed territory being formerly administered by the Sultanate of Sulu.[18][19]

Russia

Main article: Russian irredentism
See also: Russian-occupied territories, Russo-Ukrainian War, Russo-Georgian War, Proposed Russian annexation of South Ossetia, Proposed Russian annexation of Transnistria, Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and All-Russian nation

Russia promotes a claim on the territory of Ukraine, a place which Russian President Vladimir Putin describes as "essentially the same historical and spiritual space."[20] This claim has also been explicitly described as "irredentist" by American commentators.[21]

Russia also promotes claims to various post-Soviet states and militarily supports several breakaway polities in eastern Ukraine, eastern Moldova and northern Georgia.[22]

Spain

Further information: Spanish irredentism, Spanish nationalism, and Status of Gibraltar

Spain maintains a claim on Gibraltar, a British Overseas Territory near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula, which has been British since the 18th Century.

Gibraltar was

Treaty of Utrecht. Spain's territorial claim was formally reasserted by the Spanish dictator Francisco Franco in the 1960s and has been continued by successive Spanish governments. In 2002 an agreement in principle on joint sovereignty over Gibraltar between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain was decisively rejected in a referendum. The British Government now refuses to discuss sovereignty without the consent of the Gibraltarians.[23]

Major non-governmental irredentist claims

Distribution of Albanians in the Balkans

Albania

Main articles: Albanian nationalism and Greater Albania

Greater Albania[24] or Ethnic Albania as called by the Albanian nationalists themselves,[25] is an irredentist concept of lands outside the borders of Albania which are considered part of a greater national homeland by most Albanians,[26] based on claims on the present-day or historical presence of Albanian populations in those areas. The term incorporates claims to all of Kosovo, as well as territories in the neighbouring countries Montenegro, Greece, Serbia and North Macedonia. According to the Gallup Balkan Monitor 2010 report, the idea of a Greater Albania was supported by the majority of Albanians in Albania (63%), Kosovo (81%) and North Macedonia (53%).[26][27]

In 2012, as part of the celebrations for the 100th Anniversary of the Independence of Albania, Prime Minister Sali Berisha spoke of "Albanian lands" stretching from Preveza in Greece to Preševo in Serbia, and from the Macedonian capital of Skopje to the Montenegrin capital of Podgorica, angering Albania's neighbours. The comments were also inscribed on a parchment that will be displayed at a museum in the city of Vlore, where the country's independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared in 1912.[28]

Armenia

See also: United Armenia
2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war

The concept of a United Armenia (

recognition of the Armenian genocide and the hypothetical reparations of the genocide.[32][33]

Basque Country

The seven historical provinces usually included in the definition the greater region of the Basque Country

Basque irredentism refers to the idea of uniting the Basque Country (greater region) into one single state. This movement claims the territories of Basque Country (autonomous community), Navarre and parts of Nouvelle-Aquitaine

Ireland

Political map of Ireland, showing the state of Ireland and Northern Ireland
Main articles: United Ireland, Partition of Ireland, and Irish republican legitimism

The Irish Free State achieved partial independence with a dominion status under the British Empire in 1922. This state did not include Northern Ireland, which comprised six counties in the north-east of the island of Ireland which remained in the United Kingdom. When the Constitution of Ireland was adopted in 1937 it provided that the name of the state is Ireland; this is considered the time that the Republic of Ireland became a full-fledged independent nation. In the constitution Articles 2 and 3 provided that "[t]he national territory consists of the whole island of Ireland", while stipulating that "[p]ending the re-integration of the national territory", the powers of the state were restricted to legislate only for the area which had formed part of the Irish Free State. Arising from the Northern Ireland peace process, the matter was mutually resolved as part of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. Ireland's constitution was altered by referendum and its territorial claim to Northern Ireland was removed.

The amended constitution asserts that while it is the entitlement of "every person born in the island of Ireland … to be part of the Irish Nation" and to hold Irish citizenship, "a united Ireland shall be brought about only by peaceful means with the consent of a majority of the people, democratically expressed, in both jurisdictions in the island". A North/South Ministerial Council was created between the two jurisdictions and given executive authority. The advisory and consultative role of the government of Ireland in the government of Northern Ireland granted by the United Kingdom, that had begun with the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement, was maintained, although that Agreement itself was ended. The two states also settled the long-running dispute concerning their respective names: Ireland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with both governments agreeing to use those names.

Under the Irish republican theory of legitimism, the Irish Republic declared in 1916 was in existence from then on, denying the legitimacy of either the state of Ireland or the position of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom. Through much of its history, this was the position of Sinn Féin; however, it effectively abandoned this stance after accepting the Good Friday Agreement. Small groups which split from Sinn Féin continue to adopt this stance, including Republican Sinn Féin, linked with the Continuity IRA, and the 32 County Sovereignty Movement, linked with the Real IRA.

Historical irredentist claims

Africa

Some Ethiopian nationalist circles claim the former Ethiopian province of Eritrea (internationally recognized as the independent State of Eritrea in 1993 after a 30-year civil war).

Horn of Africa

Main article: Greater Somalia
Estimated ethnic Somali territory in relation to neighbouring countries. The area is roughly coextensive with Greater Somalia.

Greater Somalia refers to the region in the

vote rigging.[34] and the subsequent death of Somali nationalist Mahmoud Harbi, Vice President of the Government Council, who was killed in a plane crash two years later under suspicious circumstances.[35] Some sources say that Somalia has also laid a claim to the Socotra archipelago, which is currently recognized by the international community as part of Yemen, but occupied by the United Arab Emirates[36]

Traditional area inhabited by the Afar People

Afar homeland refers to a creation of a homeland[37] for the Afar people encompassing the Afar Region of Ethiopia, the Southern Red Sea Region of Eritrea and parts of Djibouti

North Africa

Main articles: Greater Morocco and Greater Mauritania

In North Africa, the prime examples of irredentism are the concepts of Greater Morocco and Greater Mauritania.[38] While Mauritania has since relinquished any claims to territories outside its internationally recognized borders, Morocco continues to claim Western Sahara, which it refers to as its "Southern Provinces".

Southern Africa

Greater Eswatini includes much of the Mpumalanga Province of South Africa.[39] King Mswati III of Eswatini set up the Border Restoration Committee in 2013 to negotiate restoration of the original borders.[40]

Asia

Assyria

Main articles: Assyrian nationalism and Assyrian homeland

The Assyrian homeland is a geographic and cultural region situated in

Assuristan) that was extant between the 25th century BC and 7th century AD.[43]

Azerbaijan

Main articles:
Western Azerbaijan (political concept), and Whole Azerbaijan

Western Azerbaijan is an irredentist political concept that is used in Azerbaijan mostly to refer to Armenia. Azerbaijani statements claim that the territory of the modern Armenian republic were lands that once belonged to Azerbaijanis.[44]

Bangladesh

Main article: Greater Bangladesh

Greater Bangladesh is an assumption of several Indian intellectuals that the neighbouring country of Bangladesh has an aspiration to unite all Bengali dominated regions under their flag. These include the states of West Bengal, Tripura and Assam as well as the Andaman Islands which are currently part of India and the Burmese State of Rakhine. The theory is principally based on a widespread belief amongst Indian masses that a large number of illegal Bangladeshi immigrants reside in Indian territory. It is alleged that illegal immigration to India is actively encouraged by some political groups in Bangladesh as well as the Government of Bangladesh to convert large parts of India's northeastern states and West Bengal into Muslim-majority areas that would subsequently seek to separate from India and join Muslim-majority Bangladesh.[citation needed]

Caucasus

Main articles: Armenian nationalism, Azerbaijani nationalism, Armenian genocide, and United Armenia

Irredentism is acute in the Caucasus region. The Nagorno-Karabakh movement's original slogan of miatsum ('union') was explicitly oriented towards re-unification with Armenia as to the pre-Soviet status, feeding an Azerbaijani understanding of the conflict as a bilateral one between itself and an irredentist Armenia.[45][46][47][48][49] According to Prof. Thomas Ambrosio, "Armenia's successful irredentist project in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan" and "From 1992 to the cease-fire in 1994, Armenia encountered a highly permissive or tolerant international environment that allowed its annexation of some 15 percent of Azerbaijani territory".[50]

In the view of Nadia Milanova, Nagorno-Karabakh represents a combination of separatism and irredentism.

11th Soviet Red Army invaded and occupied the region and on July 28, the decision to make Nakhchivan a part of modern-day Azerbaijan was cemented on March 16, 1921, in the Treaty of Moscow between Soviet Russia and the newly founded Republic of Turkey.[52]
Azerbaijan's irredentism, on the other hand, is quite explicit in official statements of the Azerbaijani officials by claiming the UN member-state Armenia as Azerbaijani territory despite the absence of historical evidence of Azerbaijan existing as a separate state up until 1918. On his official meeting in Gyanja on January 21, 2014, President Ilham Aliyev said, "The present-day Armenia is actually located on historical lands of Azerbaijan. Therefore, we will return to all our historical lands in the future. This should be known to young people and children. We must live, we live and we will continue to live with this idea."[53]

China

Main articles:
Transfer of sovereignty over Macau

When

Chinese immigrants were entitled to Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passport or Macao Special Administrative Region passport after the two territories became special administrative regions. Similar claims are made by China on Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh as part of Tibet, Mongolia, South China Sea, etc.[54]

India

Main articles: Indian nationalism, Indian reunification, Akhand Bharat, and Greater India
A map of the concept of Akhand Bharat.

The call for creation of

Vishwa Hindu Parishad, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).[55][56][57][58] The name of one organisation sharing this goal, the Akhand Hindustan Morcha, bears the term in its name.[59] Other major Indian non-sectarian political parties, such as the Indian National Congress, maintain a position against the partition of India
.

There has been many armed irredentist movements in the region active for almost a century. Most prominent amongst them are the

Bombay state
.

Indonesia

Main article: Greater Indonesia
Western New Guinea was incorporated into Indonesia in 1969.

Indonesia claimed all territories of the former Dutch East Indies, and previously viewed British plans to group the British Malaya and Borneo into a new independent federation of Malaysia as a threat to its objective to create a united state called Greater Indonesia. The Indonesian opposition of Malaysian formation has led to the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in the early 1960s. It also held Portuguese Timor (modern East Timor) from 1975 to 2002 based on irredentist claims.

The idea of uniting former British and Dutch colonial possessions in Southeast Asia actually has its roots in the early 20th century, as the concept of Greater Malay (Melayu Raya) was coined in British Malaya espoused by students and graduates of Sultan Idris Training College for Malay Teachers in the late 1920s.[61] Some political figures in Indonesia including Mohammad Yamin and Sukarno revived the idea in the 1950s and named the political union concept as Greater Indonesia.

Iran

Main articles: Pan-Iranism and Greater Iran
In the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Saddam Hussein's Iraq claimed it had the right to hold sovereignty to the east bank of the Shatt al-Arab river held by Iran.[62]

Persians, Azerbaijanis, Ossetians, Kurds, Zazas, Tajiks of Tajikistan and Afghanistan, the Pashtuns and the Baloch of Pakistan. The first theoretician was Dr Mahmoud Afshar Yazdi.[63][64][65][66][67][68]

The ideology of pan-Iranism is most often used in conjunction with the idea of forming a

Iranian plateau and its bordering plains.[72][73] It is also referred to as Greater Persia,[74][75][76] while the Encyclopædia Iranica uses the term Iranian Cultural Continent.[77]

Iraq

Main article: Iraqi nationalism
Map of the Ottoman provinces of Mosul, Baghdad and Basra (1900)
Saddam Hussein justified the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 by claiming that Kuwait had always been an integral part of Iraq and only became an independent nation due to the interference of the British Empire.[78]

After gaining independence in 1932, the Kingdom of Iraq immediately declared that the Sheikhdom of Kuwait was rightfully a territory of Iraq, claiming it had been part of an Iraqi territory until being created by the British.[79]

The

Abd al-Karim Qasim held an irredentist claim to Khuzestan.[80] It also held irredentist claims to Kuwait.[81]

Saddam Hussein's government sought to annex several territories. In the Iran–Iraq War, Ba'athist Iraq claimed it had the right to hold sovereignty to the east bank of the Shatt al-Arab river held by Iran.[62] Iraq had officially agreed to a compromise to hold the border at the centre-line of the river in the 1975 Algiers Agreement in return for Pahlavi Iran to end its support for Kurdish rebels in Iraq.[62] The overthrow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and the rise of Ruhollah Khomeini to power in the 1979 Iranian Revolution deteriorated Iran–Iraq relations and following ethnic clashes within Khuzestan and border clashes between Iranian and Iraqi forces, Iraq regarded the Algiers Agreement as nullified and abrogated it and a few days later the Iraqi Armed Forces launched a full-scale invasion of Iran that resulted in the Iran-Iraq War.[62] In addition, Saddam supported the Iraq-based Ahwaz Liberation Movement and their goal of breaking their claimed territory of Ahwaz away from Iran, in the belief that the movement would rouse Khuzestan's Arabs to support the Iraqi invasion.[82] In the Gulf War, Iraq occupied and annexed Kuwait before being expelled by an international military coalition that supported the restoration of Kuwait's sovereignty.

After annexing Kuwait, Iraqi forces amassed on the border with Saudi Arabia, with foreign intelligence services suspected that Saddam was preparing for an invasion of Saudi Arabia to capture or attack its oil fields that were a very short distance from the border.

Basra that the British had helped Saudi Arabia conquer in 1913.[84] It is believed that Saddam intended to annex Kuwait and the Al-Hasa oil region, so that Iraq would be in control of the Persian Gulf region's vast oil production, that would make Iraq the dominant power in the Middle East.[85] The Saudi Arabian government was alarmed by Iraq's mobilization of ten heavily armed and well-supplied Iraqi Army divisions along the border of Iraqi-annexed Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, and warned the United States government that they believed that Iraq was preparing for an immediate invasion of Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province.[86] The Saudi Arabian government stated that without assistance from outside forces, Iraq could invade and seize control of the entire Eastern Province within six hours.[86]

Israel

Main articles: Greater Israel and Movement for Greater Israel

Greater Israel is an expression that has held several different biblical and political meanings over time. It is often used, in an irredentist fashion, to refer to the historic or desired borders of Israel. Currently, the most common definition of the land encompassed by the term is the territory of the State of Israel together with the Palestinian territories. An earlier definition, favored by Revisionist Zionism, included the territory of the former Emirate of Transjordan.

Korea

Main articles: Korean nationalism and Korean reunification

The 1909 Gando Convention addressed a territory dispute between Qing China and Joseon Korea in China's favor. Because the convention was made by the occupying Empire of Japan, it was de jure nullified after the Surrender of Japan and North Korea started to control the area south of Paektu Mountain.

In 1961, the

Mt. Baekdu would go to North Korea, and two-fifths to China.[89]

In 1990, the Soviet Union and North Korea signed a border treaty recognizing Noktundo island, an island of historical significance in Joseon military history involving Admiral Yi Sun-sin, as a part of the Soviet Union and later Russia. South Korea does not recognize the treaty and maintains the nation's claim on the island administered by Russia.[90]

While South Korea did not recognize this agreement, they made no serious attempts to gain Korean sovereignty on Gando. South Korea did not officially renounce their claim on Gando, but the Sino-Korean boundary on South Korean national map loosely follows the 1961 line except Mt. Baekdu, accepting the boundary on the map as the de facto boundary.

Some Koreans who maintain an irredentist claim on Gando regard Gando as Korean territory and the 1963 treaty as null and void. More ambitious claims include all parts of Manchuria that the Goguryeo kingdom controlled.

Lebanon

Main articles: Lebanese nationalism and Phoenicianism

The Lebanese nationalism incorporates irredentist views seeking to unify all the lands of ancient Phoenicia around present day Lebanon.[91] This comes from the fact that present day Lebanon, the Mediterranean coast of Syria, and northern Israel is the area that roughly corresponds to ancient Phoenicia and as a result the majority of the Lebanese people identify with the ancient Phoenician population of that region.[92] The proposed Greater Lebanese country includes Lebanon, Mediterranean coast of Syria, and Northern Israel.

Mongolia

Main article: Pan-Mongolism

The irredentist idea that advocates cultural and political solidarity of Mongols. The proposed territory usually includes the independent state of Mongolia, the Chinese regions of Inner Mongolia (Southern Mongolia) and Dzungaria (in Xinjiang), and the Russian subjects of Buryatia. Sometimes Tuva and the Altai Republic are included as well.

Nepal

Main article: Greater Nepal

Greater Nepal involves the incorporation of the territories won by the

Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal
.

Pakistan

Main article: Pakistani nationalism

Pakistani irredentism involves the incorporation of India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Burma under Pakistan. This is most notable in the conflict in the Jammu and Kashmir a state divided between Pakistan and India.

Syria

Main article: Syrian nationalism

The

Greater Syria.[93] The proposed Syrian country includes Lebanon, Israel, Syria, Jordan, and parts of Turkey, and has at times been expanded to include Iraq, Cyprus, and the Sinai peninsula
.

Thailand

Main article: Pan-Thaiism
Thai irredentism in the 1940s.

Thailand allied with the axis powers in the 1940s in an attempt to "reclaim all of the former Thai lands." This was part of the Pan-Thai movement. The map depicts the occupation and annexation of the Cambodian territory (Nakhon Champassak, Phibunsongkhram, and Phra Tabong), Shan territory (Saharat Thai Doem), Laos territory (Lan Chang) and Malay territory (Si Rat Malai).[citation needed]

Turkey

Main articles: Turkish nationalism, Misak-ı Millî, Neo-Ottomanism, and Turkish occupation of northern Syria

Misak-ı Millî is the set of six important decisions made by the last term of the

Ankara
.

The Ottoman Minister of Internal Affairs,

Treaty of Lausanne.[citation needed
]

United Arab Emirates

The Greater and Lesser Tunbs as well as Abu Musa are disputed by the United Arab Emirates with Iran.

Yemen

Rasulid Kingdom encompassing Greater Yemen around 1264 AD
Main article: Greater Yemen

Greater Yemen is a theory giving Yemen claim to former territories that were held by various predecessor states that existed between the

Himyarite
period and 18th century. The areas claimed include parts of modern Saudi Arabia and Oman.

Europe

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Ethnic map of Sandžak
Main article: Greater Bosnia

Bosniak irredentism often endorses the annexation of the region of Sandžak, where a Bosniak community lives[94]

Bulgaria

Map of the Bulgarian Exarchate (1870–1913)
Main article: Bulgarian irredentism

Based on territorial definitions according Bulgarian

Greater Bulgaria nationalist movement has been active for more than a century, aiming to annex the rest of the three national core regions – Moesia, Thrace and Macedonia
.

Catalonia

Main article:
Catalan countries
main extent of Catalan speaking areas in dark grey

Catalan countries refers to the idea of creating an independent Catalan country encompassing Catalonia, Balearic Islands, Valencian Community, La Franja, Andorra, Carche, Alghero and Roussillon

Croatia

Main article: Greater Croatia
One of the visions of the borders of Greater Croatia as advocated by Dobroslav Paraga

Finland

Main articles: Karelian question and Greater Finland
Modern-day Finland and lands lost to the Soviet Union from 1940–1944 appear in light blue. Greater Finland includes some or all of previous Finnish territory.[failed verification] The image includes the borders of Finland according to the 1920 Treaty of Tartu and the 1947 Paris Peace Treaties.
  East Karelia
  Estonia
  Ingria
  Finland
  Kola
  Meänmaa
  Ruija

Greater Finland was an

Torne Valley (in Sweden), Ingria, and Estonia
.

Former Yugoslavia

Main article: Yugoslav irredentism
Changes in national boundaries after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and breakup of Yugoslavia

Some of the most violent irredentist conflicts of recent times in Europe flared up as a consequence of the break-up of the former federal state of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s.[dubious – discuss][clarification needed] One of the last conflicts erupted further south with the ethnic Albanian majority in Kosovo seeking to switch allegiance to the adjoining state of Albania.[95]

France

Main article: Natural borders of France
The French First Republic in 1800. The borders of France then corresponded closely to the 'natural borders' as defined by the French revolutionaries.

The natural borders of France (French: Frontières naturelles de la France) were a nationalist theory developed in France, notably during the French Revolution. They correspond to the Rhine, the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees and the Alps, according to the revolutionaries.

Germany

Main articles: German question, Pan-Germanism, Anschluss, Munich Agreement, Alsace–Lorraine, Oder–Neisse line, and Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
nation-state
.
The partition of Czechoslovakia from 1938 through 1939. German gains in purple (dark: Sudetenland, light: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia)

During the debate of what was then called the

German Question (die deutsche Frage) in the 19th century prior to the unification of Germany (1871), the term Großdeutschland, "Greater Germany", referred to a possible German nation consisting of the states that later comprised the German Empire and Austria. The term Kleindeutschland "Lesser Germany" referred to a possible German state without Austria. The term was later used by Germans referring to Greater Germany, a state consisting of pre–World War I Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland
.

Since the foundation of the German Reich in 1871, the only times during which German governments did not make some form of explicit or implicit irredentist demand or claim - including the demand for reunification during German partition - were prior to World War I and following German reunification.

The

Alsace-Lorraine) but regarding the eastern boundaries with Czechoslovakia and the Second Polish Republic it only contained a provision that any revision of borders would occur non-violently. There was never a renunciation on the part of the German government prior to World War II of any claim to territory to the east of its internationally recognized borders.[97] The foreign ministers of Germany and France who are credited with the success of the treaty negotiations, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts.[98] The Territory of the Saar Basin was put under a League of Nations mandate but was de facto a French protectorate. In 1935 (two years after Hitler had been appointed chancellor) a previously agreed to referendum was held, transferring sovereignty over the Saar Area to Germany. The reference to "1937 borders" (de:Deutsches Reich in den Grenzen vom 31. Dezember 1937) was used after the war to allow for the inclusion of the Saar Area into this concept of "Germany" while at the same time excluding the territorial developments of 1938 and early 1939 (see below), which were widely seen as the illegitimate result of German aggression and Anglo-French appeasement
after the war.

A main point of

Polish corridor an ethnically diverse but predominantly Polish area that separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany and was the only access to the sea for the Second Polish Republic. Another point of contention in the interwar German-Polish relationship was the status of the Free City of Danzig
which had an ethnic German majority population but had become a League of Nations backed City State following World War I due to its strategic importance.

West Germany and East Germany (1949–1990)

During

1972 German federal election which was held a year early in light of events. While the CDU/CSU government of Helmut Kohl which came into office in 1982 did not reverse Ostpolitik, the treaties accepting the postwar borders had been carefully worded so as to preserve the option of some different "final settlement" in the course of a peace treaty or following a possible German reunification. Thus the question of German claims to territory outside the two German states became acute again in the course of the negotiations that ultimately led to the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany or "two plus four agreement" and the final official renunciation of all German claims to any territory beyond the borders it achieved on October 3, 1990. Since then irredentist claims have been limited to a tiny far right minority and have had no major influence on national politics. However, in the course of the Kaliningrad question there were negotiations between Germany and Russia as to whether sovereignty should be transferred to Germany.[102][103][104]

Greece

Paris Peace Conference, 1919
Main articles: Megali Idea and Enosis

Following the Greek War of Independence in 1821–1832, Greece began to contest areas inhabited by Greeks, primarily against the Ottoman Empire. The Megali Idea (Great Idea) envisioned Greek incorporation of Greek-inhabited lands, but also historical lands in Asia Minor corresponding with the predominantly Greek and Orthodox Byzantine Empire and the dominions of the ancient Greeks.

The Greek quest began with the acquisition of

Republic of Turkey. The events are known as the "Asia Minor Catastrophe" to Greeks. The Ionian Islands were ceded by Britain in 1864, and the Dodecanese
by Italy in 1947.

Another concern of the Greeks is the

Cyprus issue
.

Hungary

Trianon Syndrome

The restoration of the borders of Hungary to their state prior to World War I, in order to unite all ethnic Hungarians within the same country once again.

Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary are irredentist and revisionist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. The idea is associated with Hungarian revisionism, targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Hungarian historians did not use the term Greater Hungary, because the "Historic Hungary" is the established term for the Kingdom of Hungary before 1920.

The Treaty of Trianon defined the borders of the new independent Hungary and, compared against the claims of the pre-war Kingdom, new Hungary had approximately 72% less land stake and about two-thirds fewer inhabitants, almost 5 million of these being of Hungarian ethnicity.[105][106] However, only 54% of the inhabitants of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians before World War I.[107][108] Following the treaty's instatement, Hungarian leaders became inclined towards revoking some of its terms. This political aim gained greater attention and was a serious national concern up through the second World War.[109]

Map of territories reassigned to Hungary in 1938–1941 by Nazi Germany including Northern Transylvania and Transcarpathia

Irredentism in the 1930s led Hungary to form an alliance with Nazi Germany. Eva S. Balogh states: "Hungary's participation in World War II resulted from a desire to revise the Treaty of Trianon so as to recover territories lost after World War I. This revisionism was the basis for Hungary's interwar foreign policy."[110]

Between November 1938 and April 1941, Hungary took full advantage of German patronage and, in four different stages, approximately doubled her size. Ethnically, these acquisitions were a mixed bag, some were populated mostly by Hungarians, while others, such as the remainder of Carpathian Ruthenia, were almost wholly non-Hungarian in composition. However, regarding partitioned Transylvania, the population was mixed, near equal between Hungarians and non-Hungarians.[111]

Hungary began with the

Međimurje, and Prekmurje
.

After defeat in 1945, the borders of Hungary as defined by the Treaty of Trianon were restored, except for three Hungarian villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia. These villages are today administratively a part of Bratislava.[112]

Italy

Main article: Italian irredentism
Italian ethnic regions claimed in the 1930s by the Italian irredentism: * Green: Nice, Ticino and Dalmatia * Red: Malta * Violet: Corsica * Savoy and Corfu were later claimed

Italian irredentism was a political movement during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in Italy with irredentist goals which promoted the unification of geographic areas in which indigenous peoples were ethnic Italians. At the beginning, the movement promoted the annexation to Italy of territories where Italians formed the absolute majority of the population, but retained by the Austrian Empire after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866.[113]

Even after the

Maltese Italians, Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) remained outside the borders of the Kingdom of Italy and this situation created the Italian irredentism. During World War I the main "irredent lands" (terre irredente) were considered to be the provinces of Trento and Trieste and, in a narrow sense, irredentists referred to the Italian patriots living in these two areas.[113]

Italian irredentism was not a formal organization but rather an opinion movement, advocated by several different groups, claiming that Italy had to reach its "

fascism.[114]

The term was later expanded to also include multilingual and multiethnic areas, where Italians were a relative majority or a substantial minority, within the northern Italian region encompassed by the Alps, with

Italian Switzerland.[113][115]

After the end of World War I, the Italian irredentist movement was hegemonised, manipulated and distorted by fascism, which made it an instrument of nationalist propaganda, placed at the center of a policy, conditioned by belated imperial ambitions, which took the form of "forced

Italian Republic (see Foreign relations of Italy).[116]
The Italian irredentist movement thus vanished from Italian politics.

Lithuania

Main articles:
Soviet-Lithuanian Peace Treaty
The map shows Lithuania's territorial claims that were recognised by the Soviet treaty. They were almost identical to the historical ethnic Lithuanian lands of the 13th to the 16th centuries.

Ethnographic Lithuania is a nationalist concept that defines Lithuanian territories as a significant part of the territories that belonged to the

Lithuanized. They argued that an individual cannot decide on his ethnicity and nationality, which are decided not by language but ancestry.[117]

North Macedonia

Main article: United Macedonia
See also: Macedonian nationalism

Some Macedonian nationalists promoted the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia (Macedonian: Обединета Македонија, romanized: Obedineta Makedonija) among ethnic Macedonian nationalists, which involves territorial claims on the northern province of Macedonia in Greece, but also in Blagoevgrad Province ("Pirin Macedonia") in Bulgaria, Albania, and Serbia. The United Macedonia concept aims to unify the transnational region of Macedonia in the Balkans (which they claim as their homeland and which they assert was wrongfully divided under the Treaty of Bucharest in 1913), into a single state under their domination, with Thessaloniki (Solun in the Slavic languages) as its capital.[118][119]

Norway

Main article: Greater Norway
The Kingdom of Norway at its greatest extent

The Kingdom of Norway had several territorial disputes throughout its history, mainly regarding islands and sea boundaries in the Arctic Ocean.[120] The Old Kingdom of Norway, which was the Norwegian territories at its maximum extent, included Iceland, the settleable areas of Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and the Northern Isles and Hebrides (today part of Scotland). Under Danish sovereignty since they established a hegemonic position in the Kalmar Union, the territories were considered as Norwegian colonies. When in the Treaty of Kiel in 1814, Norway's territories were transferred from Denmark to Sweden, the territories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands were maintained by Denmark.

In 1919, the foreign minister of Norway,

eastern Greenland belonged to Norway. A dispute between the two countries was not settled until 1933, by the Permanent Court of International Justice.[122] The court concluded that Denmark had sovereignty of the whole island of Greenland, ending Norwegian control over Erik the Red's Land. Norway formerly included the provinces Jämtland, Härjedalen, Idre-Särna (lost since the Second Treaty of Brömsebro), and Bohuslän (lost since the Treaty of Roskilde), which were ceded to Sweden after Danish defeats in wars such as the Thirty Years' War and Second Northern War
.

Poland

Main articles:
Myśl zachodnia
Map of territorial changes in Europe after World War I (as of 1923)
Ukrainian
populations were expelled.

myth of Kresy", the vision of the region as a peaceful, idyllic, rural land, has been criticized in Polish discourse.[123]

In January, February and March 2012, the

Fundacja Pomoc Polakom na Wschodzie, a Polish government-sponsored organization, as well as other organizations, such as The Association of Help of Poles in the East Kresy (see also Karta Polaka). Money is frequently collected to help those Poles who live in the Kresy, and there are several annual events, such as a Christmas Package for a Polish Veteran in Kresy, and Summer with Poland, sponsored by the Association "Polish Community", in which Polish children from Kresy are invited to visit Poland.[124] Polish language handbooks and films, as well as medicines and clothes are collected and sent to Kresy. Books are most often sent to Polish schools which exist there—for example, in December 2010, The University of Wrocław organized an event called Become a Polish Santa Claus and Give a Book to a Polish Child in Kresy.[125] Polish churches and cemeteries (such as Cemetery of the Defenders of Lwów
) are renovated with money from Poland.

Portugal

Main article: Olivenza § Claims of sovereignty

Portugal does not recognize Spanish sovereignty over the territory of Olivenza, ceded to Spain during the Napoleonic Wars.[126]

Romania

Main articles: Greater Romania and Unification of Moldova and Romania

Romanian nationalists lay claims to Greater Romania, but especially to Moldova, most of the territory which was part of the country between 1918 and 1940. Moldovan was the Soviet name for the Romanian language. There is some (but not universal) support by Moldovans for a peaceful and voluntary reunion with Romania, not least because (having joined the European Union), the economy has burgeoned and Romanian citizens have gained freedom of movement in Europe. Also, Russian irredentism over Transnistria has caused alarm and resentment.

Russia

Crimea, which is under Russian control, is shown in pink. Pink in the Donbas area represents areas held by pro-Russian separatists in September 2014.
Main article: Russian irredentism
Regions of Ukraine annexed by Russia in 2014 (Crimea) and 2022 (Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia), with a red line marking the area of actual control by Russia on 30 September 2022.
See also: Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and Political status of Crimea

The

transferred to Soviet Ukraine (which also was a part of the Soviet Union) in 1954. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Crimea still remained part of Ukraine until February 2014. Russia declared Crimea to be part of the Russian Federation in March 2014, and effective administration commenced. The Russian regional status is not currently recognised by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 68/262) and by most countries
.

Russian irredentism also includes southeastern and coastal Ukraine, known as Novorossiya, a term from the Russian Empire.

If the 12 July 2021 essay On the Historical Unity of Russians and Ukrainians, published by President Vladimir Putin, is to be considered an official Russian position, then its irredentist claims now extend to the entire territory of historical Ukraine and Belarus, including some areas now part of Romania.

Serbia

The distribution of Serbs and Montenegrins in Yugoslavia (except Macedonia and Slovenia) in 1981
Main article: Greater Serbia

Serbian irredentism is manifested in

Yugoslav wars, however, the Serbian struggle for Serbs to remain united in one country does not quite fit the term "irredentism".[127] In the 19th century, Pan-Serbism sought to unite all of the Serb people across the Balkans, under Ottoman and Habsburg rule. Some intellectuals sought to unite all South Slavs (regardless of religion) into a Serbian state. Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878. Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexed by the Austrians in 1908, was viewed of as a part of the Serbian homeland. Serbia directed its territorial aspirations to the south, as the north and west was held by Austria. Macedonia was divided between Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece after the Balkan Wars
.

In 1914, aspirations were directed towards Austria-Hungary. A government policy sought to incorporate all Serb-inhabited areas, and other South Slavic areas, thereby laying the

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), the Serbs now lived united in one country.[127] During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Serb political leadership in break-away Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their territories to be part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro
).

The project of unification of Serb-inhabited areas in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina during the Yugoslav Wars (see United Serb Republic) ultimately failed. The Croatian Operation Storm ended large-scale combat and captured most of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, while the Dayton Agreement ended the Bosnian War. Bosnia and Herzegovina was established as a federal republic, made up by two separate entities, one being Serb-inhabited Republika Srpska. There has since been calls by Bosnian Serb politicians for the secession of Republika Srpska, and possible unification with Serbia.

After the Kosovo War (1998–99), Kosovo became a UN protectorate, still de jure part of Serbia. The Albanian-majority Kosovo assembly unilaterally declared the independence of Kosovo in 2008, and its status since is disputed.

Sweden

Main article: Åland Islands dispute

The Åland islands were disputed at one point, due to it having a population that overwhelmingly speaks Swedish.

North America

Mexico

See also: Reconquista (Mexico)
Adams-Onís Treaty
that Spain negotiated with the U.S.

In the

Tejanos).[130] This 1915 uprising and the Plan of San Diego that preceded it marked the high point in Mexican irredentist sentiments.[131][132]

In the early years of the Chicano Movement (El Movimiento) in the 1960s and 1970s, some movement figures "were political nationalists who advocated the secession of the Southwest from the Anglo republic of the United States of America, if not fully, at least locally with regard to Chicano self-determination in local governance, education and means of production".[133] For example, in the 1970s, Reies Tijerina and his group La Alianza, espoused various separatist, secessionist, or irredentist beliefs.[134] The Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, written during the First Chicano National Youth Conference in 1969, also stated "the fundamental Chicano nationalist goal of reclaiming Aztlán"—a reference to ancient Mexican myth—as "the rightful homeland of the Chicanos".[133] However, "Most Chicano nationalists ... did not express the extreme desire for secession from the United States, and the nationalism they expressed weighed more heavily toward the broadly cultural than the explicitly political."[133]

Today, there is virtually no Mexican American support for "separatist policies of self-determination".[135] "Ethnonational irredentism by Mexicans in territories seized by the United States" following the Mexican–American War "declined after the failure of several attempted revolts at the end of the nineteenth century, in favor of internal ... struggles for immigrant and racial civil rights" in the United States.[136] Neither the Mexican government nor any significant Mexican-American group "makes irredentist claims upon the United States".[137] In the modern era, there "has been no evidence of irredentist sentiments among Mexican-Americans, even in such formerly Mexican territories as Southern California, ... nor of disloyalty to the United States, nor of active interest in the politics of Mexico".[138]

Border disputes related to irredentist claims

Afghanistan

The

Pashtun tribes inhabiting the border areas were divided between what have become two nations; Afghanistan never accepted the still-porous border and clashes broke out in the 1950s and 1960s between Afghanistan and Pakistan over the issue. All Afghan governments of the past century have declared, with varying intensity, a long-term goal of re-uniting all Pashtun-dominated areas under Afghan rule.[139][140] No other country in the world accepts Afghanistan's unilateral claim that the Durand Line is in dispute. Afghan claims over Pakistani territory have detrimentally affected Afghanistan–Pakistan relations
.

Korea

Map of the Korean Peninsula
Main article: Korean reunification

Since their founding, both Korean states have disputed the legitimacy of the other. The Constitution of North Korea stresses the importance of reunification, but, while it makes no similar formal provision for administering the South, it effectively claims its territory as it does not diplomatically recognise the Republic of Korea, deeming it an "entity occupying the Korean territory".

President. However the body is purely symbolic and largely tasked with dealing with Northern defectors; if reunification were to occur the committee would be dissolved and new administrators appointed by the Ministry of Unification.[141]

Pakistan

Pakistan and India have from their independence sought to have the territory of Kashmir incorporated into them. Pakistan's and India's dispute over the territory of Kashmir stems from events leading up to independence from the British.

See also

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    . Excerpt: "Говоря о возникновении азербайджанской культуры именно в XIV-XV вв., следует иметь в виду прежде всего литературу и другие части культуры, органически связанные с языком. Что касается материальной культуры, то она оставалась традиционной и после тюркизации местного населения. Впрочем, наличие мощного пласта иранцев, принявших участие в формировании азербайджанского этноса, наложило свой отпечаток прежде всего на лексику азербайджанского языка, в котором огромное число иранских и арабских слов. Последние вошли и в азербайджанский, и в турецкий язык главным образом через иранское посредство. Став самостоятельной, азербайджанская культура сохранила тесные связи с иранской и арабской. Они скреплялись и общей религией, и общими культурно-историческими традициями." (History of the East. 6 v. 2. East during the Middle Ages. Chapter V. – M.: «Eastern literature», 2002. –
    ISBN 5-02-017711-3
    .). Translation: "However, the availability of powerful layer of Iranians took part in the formation of the Azerbaijani ethnic group, left their mark primarily in the Azerbaijani language, in which a great number of Iranian and Arabic words. The latter included in the Azeri, and Turkish language primarily through Iranian mediation."
  69. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7
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  70. ^ "Interview with Richard N. Frye (CNN)". 2007. Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
  71. S2CID 162213219
    . I use the term Iran in an historical context [...] Persia would be used for the modern state, more or less equivalent to "western Iran". I use the term "Greater Iran" to mean what I suspect most Classicists and ancient historians really mean by their use of Persia – that which was within the political boundaries of States ruled by Iranians
  72. ^ "IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN". Encyclopædia Iranica.
  73. ISBN 90-04-10763-0
  74. ISBN 9781107404618. Archived from the original
    on 12 November 2020. I further restrict the scope of this study by focusing on the lands of Iraq and greater Persia (including Khwārazm, Transoxania, and Afghanistan).
  75. ISBN 1-56859-262-0. Archived from the original
    on 23 July 2011. O'Donoghue: "... all set in the greater Persia/Iran which includes Afghanistan".
  76. ISBN 1-85617-445-X
    . Shiels: "During the Sassanid period the term Eranshahr was employed to denote the region also known as Greater Iran ..." Also: "... the Abbasids, who with Persian assistance assumed the Prophet's mantle and transferred their capital to Baghdad three years later; thus, on a site close to historic Ctesiphon and even older Babylon, the caliphate was established within the bounds of Greater Persia."
  77. ^ "Columbia College Today". columbia.edu. Archived from the original on 27 November 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
  78. ^ R. Stephen Humphreys, Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age, University of California Press, 1999, p. 105.
  79. ^ Duiker, William J; Spielvogel, Jackson J. World History: From 1500. 5th edition. Belmont, California, USA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007. Pp. 839.
  80. ^ Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Iraq A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing, 2004 Pp. 65.
  81. ^ Raymond A. Hinnebusch. The international politics of the Middle East. Manchester, England, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003 Pp. 209.
  82. ^ Kevin M. Woods, David D. Palkki, Mark E. Stout. The Saddam Tapes: The Inner Workings of a Tyrant's Regime, 1978-2001. Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pp. 131-132
  83. ^ Nathan E. Busch. No End in Sight: The Continuing Menace of Nuclear Proliferation. Lexington, Kentucky, USA: University of Kentucky Press, 2004. Pp. 237.
  84. ^ Amatzia Baram, Barry Rubin. Iraq's Road To War. New York, New York, USA: St. Martin's Press, 1993. Pp. 127.
  85. ^ Sharad S. Chauhan. War On Iraq. APH Publishing, 2003. Pp. 126.
  86. ^ a b Middle East Contemporary Survey, Volume 14; Volume 1990. Pp. 606.
  87. ^ 金得榥,「백두산과 북방강계」, 사사연, 1987, 27쪽
  88. ^ 북한연구소, 북한총람 (1982) 85쪽.
  89. ^ Border Disputes with China and North Korea. http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/806
  90. ^ Ivanov, A. "The problem of the Noktundo Island in the media in South Korea | Asia Pacific Study Center". Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  91. ISBN 9781780767796
    – via Google Books.
  92. ^ Kamal S. Salibi, "The Lebanese Identity" Journal of Contemporary History 6.1, Nationalism and Separatism (1971:76–86).
  93. ^ Pipes, Daniel (August 1988). "Radical Politics and the Syrian Social Nationalist Party". International Journal of Middle East Studies. Retrieved 28 January 2017.
  94. ISBN 9780765631893
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  95. ISBN 9781555872212
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  96. ^ "Deutschnationale Volkspartei (DNVP)".
  97. ^ "Vor 90 Jahren: Die Verträge von Locarno". 30 November 2015.
  98. ^ lemo Lebendiges Museum Online. "LeMO Weimarer Republik - Außenpolitik - Konferenz von Locarno 1925". Dhm.de. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  99. ^ "Zentrale Inhalte des Grundgesetzes". September 2008.
  100. ^ "Chronik-Glossar: Artikel 23 Grundgesetz".
  101. ^ "Art 23 GG - Einzelnorm".
  102. ^ "Germany in secret talks with Russia to take back Konigsberg". 21 January 2001.
  103. ^ "The Status of Kaliningrad Oblast Under International Law - Raymond A. Smith".
  104. ^ "7 parts of Russia that other countries could call theirs". 27 March 2014.
  105. ISBN 90-272-1858-7
    . Retrieved 15 August 2011.
  106. ^ "Treaty of Trianon". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 September 2023.
  107. ^ A magyar szent korona országainak 1910. évi népszámlálása. Első rész. A népesség főbb adatai. (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Kir. Központi Statisztikai Hivatal (KSH). 1912.
  108. ^ Anstalt G. Freytag & Berndt (1911). Geographischer Atlas zur Vaterlandskunde an der österreichischen Mittelschulen. Vienna: K. u. k. Hof-Kartographische. "Census December 31st 1910"
  109. ^ "HUNGARY". Hungarian Online Resources (Magyar Online Forrás). Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
  110. ^ Eva S. Balogh, "Peaceful Revision: The Diplomatic Road to War." Hungarian Studies Review 10.1 (1983): 43-51. online
  111. ^ Balogh, p. 44.
  112. ^ Mark Pittaway, "National socialism and the production of German–Hungarian borderland space on the eve of the second world war." Past & Present 216.1 (2012): 143-180.
  113. ^ a b c d "IRREDENTISMO" (in Italian). Treccani. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  114. ^ a b Monteleone, Renato (1970). "La politica dei Socialisti e democratici irredenti in Italia nella grande guerra". Studi Storici (in Italian). Anno 11 (2): 313–346..
  115. ^ "La frontiera tra Italia e Svizzera" (in Italian). Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  116. ^ "L'Italia per De Gaulle: "Non un paese povero, ma un povero paese"" (in Italian). Retrieved 9 September 2023.
  117. ISBN 83-05-12769-9
    .
  118. ^ Greek Macedonia "not a problem", The Times (London), August 5, 1957
  119. YouTube
    , singing a nationalistic tune called Izlezi Momče (Излези момче, "Get out boy"). Translation from Macedonian:

    Get out, boy, straight on the terrace
    And salute Goce's race
    Raise your hands up high
    Ours will be Thessaloniki's area.

  120. ^ "Evolution of Arctic Territorial Claims and Agreements: A Timeline (1903-Present) • Stimson Center". Stimson Center. 15 September 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  121. S2CID 146944266
    .
  122. JSTOR 40513230
    .
  123. ^ "odczarować mit Kresów Czas odczarować mit Kresów Marcin Wojciechowski, Gazeta Wyborcza 2010-04-12".
  124. ^ Meksa, Michał (28 July 2011). "Dzieci z Kresów zwiedzają Łódź [ZDJĘCIA]".
  125. ^ "Wiadomości i informacje o książkach i wszelkich przejawach kultury książki". Portal Księgarski.
  126. ^ Mora, Miguel (3 December 2006). "La eterna disputa de Olivenza-Olivença | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS". El País. Elpais.com. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
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  128. ISBN 978-1-59884-078-0
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  129. ^ Américo Paredes (1993). Folklore and Culture on the Texas-Mexican Border. University of Texas Press. pp. 25–26.
  130. ^ Américo Paredes (1976). A Texas-Mexican Cancionero: Folksongs of the Lower Border. University of Texas Press. pp. 33–34.
  131. ^ Leo Cervantes (2004). More Than a Century of the Chicano Movement. Orbis Press. p. 55.
  132. ^ John R. Chávez (1984). The Lost Land: The Chicano Image of the Southwest. University of New Mexico Press. p. 79.
  133. ^
    ISBN 9780816643059
    .
  134. ^ Leo Cervantes (2004). More Than a Century of the Chicano Movement. Orbis Press. pp. 61–67.
  135. ISBN 978-0-7591-0567-6
    .
  136. ^ Josiah M. Heyman & John Symons (2012). "Borders". In Didier Fassin (ed.). A Companion to Moral Anthropology (paperback 2015 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 553.
  137. ^ Walker Connor (1994). Mexican-Americans in Comparative Perspective. Urban Institute Press. p. 155.
  138. ^ Milton J. Esman (1994). Ethnic Politics. Cornell University Press. pp. 61–67.
  139. ^ Dr. G. Rauf Roashan, "The Unholy Durand Line, Buffering the Buffer", Institute for Afghan Studies, August 11, 2001. Archived March 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  140. ^ Harrison, Selig S. (11 May 2009). "The Fault Line Between Pashtuns and Punjabis in Pakistan". The Washington Post.
  141. ^ "South Korea's Governors-in-Theory for North Korea". The Wall Street Journal. 18 March 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014.
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