Bupropion

Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Not to be confused with Buprenorphine or Buspirone.

Bupropion
Skeletal formula of bupropion
Ball-and-stick model of the (S) isomer of the bupropion molecule
1 : 1 mixture (racemate)
Clinical data
PronunciationBupropion: /bjuːˈproʊpiɒn/
bew-PROH-pee-on
Amfebutamone:
am-fa-BEW-teh-moan
Trade namesWellbutrin, Zyban, others
Other namesAmfebutamone; 3-Chloro-N-tert-butyl-β-keto-α-methylphenethylamine;
3-Chloro-N-tert-butyl-β-ketoamphetamine;
3-Chloro-N-tert-butylcathinone
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa695033
License data
Pregnancy
category
By mouth[2][3]
Drug classNDRI antidepressants
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
intestines (CYP2B6, others)[2]
Metabolites• Hydroxybupropion
• Threohydrobupropion
• Erythrohydrobupropion
• Others
Elimination half-lifeBupropion: 
alpha: 0.5–1.04
beta: 11 h[15][2]
Hydroxybupropion: 20 h[2]
Threohydrobupropion: 37 h[2]
Erythrohydrobupropion: 33 h[2]
ExcretionUrine: 87% (0.5% unchanged)[2]
Feces: 10%[2]
Identifiers
  • (RS)-2-(tert-Butylamino)-1-(3-chlorophenyl)propan-1-one
JSmol)
SMILES
  • O=C(C(C)NC(C)(C)C)C1=CC=CC(Cl)=C1
  • InChI=1S/C13H18ClNO/c1-9(15-13(2,3)4)12(16)10-6-5-7-11(14)8-10/h5-9,15H,1-4H3 checkY
  • Key:SNPPWIUOZRMYNY-UHFFFAOYSA-N checkY
  (verify)

Bupropion, formerly called amfebutamone,

add-on medication in the cases of "incomplete response" to the first-line selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant.[18][19] Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction,[18] it is not associated with weight gain[18] and sleepiness,[20] and it is more effective than SSRIs at improving symptoms of hypersomnia and fatigue.[21] Bupropion, particularly the immediate-release formulation, carries a higher risk of seizure than many other antidepressants, hence caution is recommended in patients with a history of seizure disorder.[22] The medication is taken by mouth.[2][3]

Common

overdose.[26] Bupropion use during pregnancy may be associated with increased likelihood of congenital heart defects.[27]

Bupropion acts as a

class of substituted cathinones and more generally that of substituted amphetamines and substituted phenethylamines.[33][34]

Bupropion was invented by

Burroughs Wellcome, in 1969.[35] It was first approved for medical use in the United States in 1985.[36] Bupropion was originally called by the generic name amfebutamone, before being renamed in 2000.[16] In 2022, it was the 21st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 25 million prescriptions.[37][38] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[39] In 2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the combination dextromethorphan/bupropion to serve as a rapid-acting antidepressant in patients with major depressive disorder.[40]

Medical uses

A bottle of brand-name Wellbutrin XL 300 mg

Depression

The evidence overall supports the

variability in effect sizes between the selected trials—which led the authors to state that their findings in this area should be interpreted with "extreme caution"—and general lack of inclusion of unpublished trials in the meta-analysis.[18] Unpublished trials are more likely to be negative in findings,[46][47] and other meta-analyses have included unpublished trials.[43][44][42][45] Evidence suggests that the effectiveness of bupropion for depression is similar to that of other antidepressants.[43][44][18]

Over the autumn and winter months, bupropion prevents the development of depression in those who have recurring seasonal affective disorder: 15% of participants on bupropion experienced a major depressive episode vs. 27% of those on placebo.[48] Bupropion also improves depression in bipolar disorder, with the efficacy and risk of an affective switch being similar to other antidepressants.[49]

Bupropion has several features that distinguish it from other antidepressants: for instance, unlike the majority of antidepressants, it does not usually cause sexual dysfunction, and the occurrence of sexual side effects is not different from placebo.[18][50] Bupropion treatment is not associated with weight gain; on the contrary, the majority of studies observed significant weight loss in bupropion-treated participants.[18] Bupropion treatment also is not associated with the sleepiness that may be produced by other antidepressants.[20] Bupropion is more effective than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) at improving symptoms of hypersomnia and fatigue in depressed patients.[21] Bupropion is effective in the treatment of anxious depression and, contrary to common belief, does not exacerbate anxiety in this context.[51][52] The effectiveness of bupropion for anxious depression is equivalent to that of SSRIs in the case of depression with low or moderate anxiety, whereas SSRIs show a modest effectiveness advantage in terms of response rates for depression with high anxiety.[51]

The addition of bupropion to a prescribed SSRI is a common strategy when people do not respond to the SSRI,[19] and it is supported by clinical trials;[18] however, it appears to be inferior to the addition of atypical antipsychotic aripiprazole.[53][further explanation needed]

Smoking cessation

Prescribed as an aid for smoking cessation, bupropion reduces the severity of

craving for nicotine and withdrawal symptoms[54][55][56]
such as depressed mood, irritability, difficulty concentrating, and increased appetite.[57] Initially, bupropion slows the weight gain that often occurs in the first weeks after quitting smoking. With time, however, this effect becomes negligible.[57]

The bupropion treatment course lasts for seven to twelve weeks, with the patient halting the use of tobacco about ten days into the course.[57][10] After the course, the effectiveness of bupropion for maintaining abstinence from smoking declines over time, from 37% of tobacco abstinence at 3 months to 20% at one year.[58] It is unclear whether extending bupropion treatment helps to prevent relapse of smoking.[59]

Overall, six months after the therapy, bupropion increases the likelihood of quitting smoking by approximately 1.6-fold as compared to placebo. In this respect, bupropion is as effective as nicotine replacement therapy but inferior to varenicline. Combining bupropion and nicotine replacement therapy does not improve the quitting rate.[60]

In children and adolescents, the use of bupropion for smoking cessation does not appear to offer any significant benefits.[61] The evidence for its use to aid smoking cessation in pregnant women is insufficient.[62]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

In the United States, the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not an approved indication of bupropion, and it is not mentioned in the 2019 guideline on ADHD treatment from the American Academy of Pediatrics.[63] Systematic reviews of bupropion for the treatment of ADHD in both adults and children note that bupropion may be effective for ADHD but warn that this conclusion has to be interpreted with caution, because clinical trials were of low quality due to small sizes and risk of bias.[30][64][65][66] Similarly to atomoxetine, bupropion has a delayed onset of action for ADHD, and several weeks of treatment are required for therapeutic effects.[30][67] This is in contrast to stimulants, such as amphetamine and methylphenidate, which have an immediate onset of effect in the condition.[67]

Sexual dysfunction

Bupropion is less likely than other antidepressants to cause

SSRI antidepressants.[70] There have also been small studies suggesting that bupropion or a bupropion/trazodone combination may improve some measures of sexual function in women who have hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) and are not depressed.[71] According to an expert consensus recommendation from the International Society for the Study of Women's Sexual Health, bupropion can be considered as an off-label treatment for HSDD despite limited safety and efficacy data.[72] Likewise, a 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis of bupropion for sexual desire disorder in women reported that although data were limited, bupropion appeared to be dose-dependently effective for the condition.[73]

Weight loss

Bupropion, when used for treating long-term weight gain over six to twelve months, results in an average weight loss of 2.7 kilograms (6.0 lb) over placebo.[74] This is not much different from the weight loss produced by several other weight-loss medications such as sibutramine or orlistat.[74] The combination drug naltrexone/bupropion has been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of obesity.[75][76]

Other uses

Bupropion is not effective in the treatment of

TNF-alpha, there have been suggestions that it might be useful in treating inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, and other autoimmune conditions, but very little clinical evidence is available.[80][81][82] Bupropion is not effective in treating chronic low back pain.[83] The drug may be useful in the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) and narcolepsy.[84][85][86][87]

Bupropion has been used to treat

animal models.[88] However, only limited benefits of bupropion in the treatment of apathy have been observed in clinical trials in various conditions.[88]

Bupropion has been used in the treatment of postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS).[90][91]

Available forms

See also: Naltrexone/bupropion and Dextromethorphan/bupropion

Bupropion is available as an oral tablet in several different formulations.[10][11] It is mainly formulated as the hydrochloride salt[10][11] but also as the hydrobromide salt.[12] In addition to single-drug formulations, bupropion is formulated in combinations including naltrexone/bupropion (Contrave) for obesity and dextromethorphan/bupropion (Auvelity) for depression.[92][93]

Contraindications

The US

kidney disease, and severe hypertension, and in children, adolescents, and young adults due to the increased risk of suicidal ideation.[10]

Side effects

See also: List of side effects of bupropion

The common adverse effects of bupropion with the greatest difference from placebo are dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, and excessive sweating.[10][11] Bupropion has the highest incidence of insomnia of all second-generation antidepressants, apart from desvenlafaxine.[94] It is also associated with about 20% increased risk of headache.[95]

Bupropion raises blood pressure in some people. One study showed an average rise of 6 mm Hg in systolic blood pressure in 10% of patients.[23] The prescribing information notes that hypertension, sometimes severe, is observed in some people taking bupropion, both with and without pre-existing hypertension.[10][11] The safety of bupropion in people with cardiovascular conditions and its general cardiovascular safety profile remains unclear due to the lack of data.[96][97]

Seizure is a rare but serious adverse effect of bupropion. It is strongly dose-dependent: for the immediate release preparation, the seizure incidence is 0.4% at the dose 300–450 mg per day; the incidence climbs almost ten-fold for the higher than recommended dose of 600 mg.[10][11] For comparison, the incidence of unprovoked seizure in the general population is 0.07–0.09%, and the risk of seizure for a variety of other antidepressants is generally 0–0.5% at the recommended doses.[98]

Cases of liver toxicity leading to death or liver transplantation have been reported for bupropion. It is considered to be one of several antidepressants with a greater risk of hepatotoxicity.[24]

The prescribing information warns about bupropion triggering an angle-closure

open angle glaucoma.[99]

Bupropion use by mothers in the first trimester of pregnancy is associated with a 23% increase in the odds of congenital heart defects in their children.[27]

Bupropion has rarely been associated with instances of Stevens–Johnson syndrome.[100][101]

Bupropion has not been associated with

overdose.[102][103][104]

Psychiatric

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires all antidepressants, including bupropion, to carry a boxed warning stating that antidepressants may increase the risk of suicide in people younger than 25. This warning is based on a statistical analysis conducted by the FDA which found a 2-fold increase in suicidal thought and behavior in children and adolescents, and a 1.5-fold increase in the 18–24 age group.[105] For this analysis the FDA combined the results of 295 trials of 11 antidepressants to obtain statistically significant results. Considered in isolation, bupropion was not statistically different from placebo.[105]

Bupropion prescribed for smoking cessation results in a 25% increase in the risk of psychiatric side effects, in particular, anxiety (about 40% increase) and insomnia (about 80% increase). The evidence is insufficient to determine whether bupropion is associated with suicides or suicidal behavior.[55]

In rare cases, bupropion-induced psychosis may develop. It is associated with higher doses of bupropion; many cases described are at higher than recommended doses. Concurrent antipsychotic medication appears to be protective.[25] In most cases the psychotic symptoms are eliminated by reducing the dose, ceasing treatment or adding antipsychotic medication.[10][25]

Although studies are lacking, a handful of case reports suggest that abrupt discontinuation of bupropion may cause antidepressant discontinuation syndrome.[106]

Overdose

Bupropion is considered moderately dangerous in overdose.

abnormal heart rhythms. When bupropion was one of several kinds of pills taken in an overdose, fever, muscle rigidity, muscle damage, hypertension or hypotension, stupor, coma, and respiratory failure have been reported. While most people recover, some people have died, having had multiple uncontrolled seizures and myocardial infarction.[10]

Interactions

Since bupropion is metabolized to

norfluoxetine (active metabolite of fluoxetine), diazepam, clopidogrel, and orphenadrine. The expected result is an increase of bupropion and a decrease in hydroxybupropion blood concentration. The reverse effect (decrease of bupropion and increase of hydroxybupropion) can be expected with CYP2B6 inducers such as carbamazepine, clotrimazole, rifampicin, ritonavir, St John's wort, and phenobarbital.[109] Indeed, carbamazepine decreases exposure to bupropion by 90% and increases exposure to hydroxybupropion by 94%.[110] Ritonavir, lopinavir/ritonavir, and efavirenz have been shown to decrease levels of bupropion and/or its metabolites.[111] Ticlopidine and clopidogrel, both potent CYP2B6 inhibitors, have been found to considerably increase bupropion levels as well as decrease levels of its metabolite hydroxybupropion.[111]

Bupropion and its metabolites are inhibitors of

sympathomimetic effects of methamphetamine in humans.[116][117][118]

Bupropion lowers the seizure threshold, and therefore can potentially interact with other medications that also lower it, such as antipsychotics, tricyclic antidepressants, theophylline, and systemic corticosteroids.[10] The prescribing information recommends minimizing the use of alcohol, since in rare cases bupropion reduces alcohol tolerance.[10]

Caution should be observed when combining bupropion with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), as it may result in hypertensive crisis.[119]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

Bupropion binding and activity[120][121][122]
Site Value (nM) Type Species
DATTooltip Dopamine transporter 173–1,800
372–2,780
330–2,900
550–2,170		 Ki
Ki
IC50
IC50		 Human
Rat
Human
Rat
NETTooltip Norepinephrine transporter 3,640–52,000
940–1,900
443–3,240
1,400–1,900		 Ki
Ki
IC50
IC50		 Human
Rat
Human
Rat
SERTTooltip Serotonin transporter 9,100–>100,000
1,000–>10,000
47,000–>100,000
15,600		 Ki
Ki
IC50
IC50		 Human
Rat
Human
Rat
α1/1A-AdR 4,200–16,000 Ki Human
α2/2A-AdR >10,000–81,000 Ki Human
H1
 6,600–>10,000 Ki Human
σ1 580–2,100 IC50 Rodent
α1-nACh 7,600–28,000 IC50 Human
α3β2-nACh 1,000 IC50 Human
α3β4-nACh 1,800 IC50 Human
α4β2-nACh 12,000 IC50 Human
α4β4-nACh 12,000–14,000 IC50 Human
α7-nACh 7,900–50,000 IC50 Human
α/β/δ/γ-nACh 7,900 IC50 Human
hERG
Tooltip human Ether-à-go-go-Related Gene		 34,000–69,000 IC50 Human
Notes: (1) Values are in nanomolar (nM) units. The smaller the value, the more avidly the drug binds to or affects the site. (2) Affinities (Ki) were >10,000 nM at a variety of other sites (5-HT1, 5-HT2, β-adrenergic, D1, D2, mACh, nACh, GABAA). More: [123][124][125][126][127][128]

The

serotonin, histamine, and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors.[20]

The occupancy of

affinity for the NET than the DAT,[133] bupropion's overall pharmacological profile in humans may end up making it effectively more of a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor than a dopamine reuptake inhibitor.[31][32] Accordingly, the clinical effects of bupropion are more consistent with noradrenergic activity than with dopaminergic actions.[31][32]

Bupropion has been claimed to be a

trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1).[139][140][141][142]

Bupropion has been found to have a mixture of

tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα).[143][149][150] The catecholaminergic actions of bupropion may be involved in its immunomodulatory effects.[150]

Pharmacology of bupropion and its metabolites
  Bupropion R,R-
Hydroxy
bupropion 		S,S-
Hydroxy
bupropion 		Threo-
hydro
bupropion 		Erythro-
hydro
bupropion
Exposure and half-life
AUC relative
to bupropion[151][152] 		1 23.8 0.6 11.2 2.5
Half-life[15] 1.04 h 19 h 15 h 31 h 22 h
Inhibition IC50 (μM) in human cells, unless noted otherwise (Lesser values indicate greater potency.)
DAT, uptake[133] 0.66 inactive 0.63 47 (rat)[153] no data
NET, uptake[133] 1.85 9.9 0.24 16 (rat)[153] no data
SERT, uptake[133] inactive inactive inactive 67 (rat)[153] no data
α3β4 nicotinic[133] 1.8 6.5 11 14 (rat)[154] no data
α4β2 nicotinic[155] 12 31 3.3 no data no data
α1β1γδ nicotinic[155] 7.9 7.6 28 no data no data
5-HT3A[156][157] 87 (mouse) 113 no data no data no data

Pharmacokinetics

Principal pathways of bupropion metabolism

After oral administration, bupropion is rapidly and completely absorbed reaching the peak blood plasma concentration after 1.5 hours (tmax). Sustained-release (SR) and extended-release (XL) formulations have been designed to slow down absorption resulting in tmax of 3 hours and 5 hours, respectively.[109] Absolute bioavailability of bupropion is unknown but is presumed to be low, at 5–20%, due to the first-pass metabolism. As for the relative bioavailability of the formulations, XL formulation has lower bioavailability (68%) compared to SR formulation and immediate release bupropion.[2]

Bupropion is metabolized in the body by a variety of pathways. The

11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in the liver and AKR7A2/AKR7A3 in the intestine leading to threo-hydrobupropion and by yet unknown enzyme leading to erythro-hydrobupropion.[2]

The metabolism of bupropion is highly variable: the effective doses of bupropion received by persons who ingest the same amount of the drug may differ by as much as 5.5 times (with a half-life of 12–30 hours), while the effective doses of hydroxybupropion may differ by as much as 7.5 times (with a half-life of 15–25 hours).[10][158][159] Based on this, some researchers have advocated monitoring of the blood level of bupropion and hydroxybupropion.[160]

The metabolism of bupropion also seems to follow biphasic pharmacokinetics: the redistribution alpha phase with half-life of about 1 hour[161] precedes the metabolism beta phase of about 12-30 hours. This might explain why abuse is unfeasible due to a short "high", as well as support the use of extended-release formulas to maintain a consistent concentration of bupropion.

The metabolism of bupropion is highly species-dependent.

reinforcing effects in rodents, whereas oral bupropion at therapeutic doses seems to have much less or no potential for such effects in humans.[165]

Chemistry

Bupropion is an

optical isomers on bupropion can be separated, they rapidly racemize under physiological conditions.[2][166]

Bupropion is a

lipophilic compound,[2] with an experimental log P of 3.6.[167][168] Pharmaceutically, bupropion is used mainly as the hydrochloride salt but also to a lesser extent as the hydrobromide salt.[10][11][169]

A number of

3-chloro-N-cyclopropylcathinone (3Cl-CpC; PAL-433, RTI-6037-39).[175][176][162] It is a hybrid serotonin releasing agent (SRA) and serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (SNDRI) and was being investigated for potential treatment of cocaine dependence.[175][176][162]

There have been reported cases of false-positive urine amphetamine tests in persons taking bupropion.[177][178][179]

Synthesis

It is synthesized in two chemical steps starting from 3'-chloro-

nucleophilic displacement of the resulting alpha-bromoketone with t-butylamine and treated with hydrochloric acid to give bupropion as the hydrochloride salt in 75–85% overall yield.[35][180]

Bupropion synthesis diagram
3'-chloro-propiophenone
3'-chloro-2-bromopropiophenone
bupropion hydrochloride
This diagram shows the synthesis of bupropion via 3'-chloro-propiophenone.

History

steady-state plasma bupropion levels with bupropion IR 100 mg t.i.d. (3x/day), bupropion SR 150 mg b.i.d. (2x/day), and bupropion XL 300 mg q.d. (1x/day)[3][109]

Bupropion was invented by

GlaxoSmithKline) in 1969, and the US patent for it was granted in 1974.[35] It was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an antidepressant on 30 December 1985, and marketed under the name Wellbutrin.[36][181] However, a significant incidence of seizures at the originally recommended dosage (400–600 mg/day) caused the withdrawal of the drug in 1986. Subsequently, the risk of seizures was found to be highly dose-dependent, and bupropion was re-introduced to the market in 1989 with a lower maximum recommended daily dose of 450 mg/day.[182]

In 1996, the US

sustained-release formulation of alcohol-resistant bupropion called Wellbutrin SR, a tablet intended to be taken twice a day (as compared with three times a day for immediate-release Wellbutrin).[183] In 2003, the FDA approved another sustained-release formulation called Wellbutrin XL, a hard-shelled tablet intended for once-daily dosing.[184] Wellbutrin SR and XL are available in generic form in the United States and Canada. In 1997, bupropion was approved by the FDA for use as a smoking cessation aid under the name Zyban.[185][183] In 2006, Wellbutrin XL was similarly approved as a treatment for seasonal affective disorder.[186][187]

In October 2007, two providers of consumer information on nutritional products and supplements, ConsumerLab.com and The People's Pharmacy, released the results of comparative tests of different brands of bupropion.[188] The People's Pharmacy received multiple reports of increased side effects and decreased efficacy of generic bupropion, which prompted it to ask ConsumerLab.com to test the products in question. The tests showed that "one of a few generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, sold as Budeprion XL 300 mg, didn't perform the same as the brand-name pill in the lab."[189] The FDA investigated these complaints and concluded that Budeprion XL is equivalent to Wellbutrin XL in regard to bioavailability of bupropion and its main active metabolite hydroxybupropion. The FDA also said that coincidental natural mood variation is the most likely explanation for the apparent worsening of depression after the switch from Wellbutrin XL to Budeprion XL.[190] On 3 October 2012, however, the FDA reversed this opinion, announcing that "Budeprion XL 300 mg fails to demonstrate therapeutic equivalence to Wellbutrin XL 300 mg."[191] The FDA did not test the bioequivalence of any of the other generic versions of Wellbutrin XL 300 mg, but requested that the four manufacturers submit data on this question to the FDA by March 2013.[191] As of October 2013 the FDA has made determinations on the formulations from some manufacturers not being bioequivalent.[191]

In April 2008, the FDA approved a formulation of bupropion as a hydrobromide salt instead of a hydrochloride salt, to be sold under the name Aplenzin by Sanofi-Aventis. It is an extended-release tablet intended for once-daily use.[12][192][193] It was approved on the basis of bioequivalence with Wellbutrin XL.[194]

In 2009, the FDA issued a health advisory warning that the prescription of bupropion for smoking cessation has been associated with reports of unusual behavior changes, agitation, and hostility. Some people, according to the advisory, have become depressed or have had their depression worsen, have had thoughts about suicide or dying, or have attempted suicide.[195] This advisory was based on a review of anti-smoking products that identified 75 reports of "suicidal adverse events" for bupropion over ten years.[196] Based on the results of follow-up trials this warning was removed in 2016.[197]

In 2012, the US Justice Department announced that GlaxoSmithKline had agreed to plead guilty and pay a $3 billion fine, in part for promoting the unapproved use of Wellbutrin for weight loss and sexual dysfunction.[198]

In 2017, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended suspending a number of nationally approved medicines due to misrepresentation of bioequivalence study data by Micro Therapeutic Research Labs in India.[199] The products recommended for suspension included several 300 mg modified-release bupropion tablets.[200]

Following EMA's call for an industry-wide review of medicines for the possible presence of nitrosamines,[201] GlaxoSmithKline paused batch release and distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets in November 2022. In July 2023, EMA raised the acceptable daily intake of nitrosamine impurities, leading GlaxoSmithKline to announce that distribution of bupropion 150 mg tablets would resume "across the EU and Europe" by the end of 2023.[202]

Society and culture

Recreational use

Recreational use of bupropion is uncommon.[203] While bupropion demonstrates some potential for recreational use, this potential is less than that of other commonly used stimulants, being limited by features of its pharmacology.[203] Case reports describe the recreational use of bupropion as producing a "high" similar to cocaine or amphetamine usage but with less intensity. There have been some anecdotal and case-study reports of bupropion abuse, but the bulk of evidence indicates that the subjective effects of bupropion when taken orally are markedly different from those of addictive stimulants such as cocaine or amphetamine.[204] However, bupropion, by non-conventional routes of administration like injection or insufflation, has been reported to be used recreationally in the United States and Canada, notably in prisons.[205][206][207][208]

In Russia bupropion is banned as a

narcotic drug, due to it being a derivative of methcathinone.[209]
In Australia, France, and the UK, smoking cessation is the only licensed use of bupropion, and no generics are marketed.[210][211][212]

Brand names

Brand names include Wellbutrin,[10][11] Aplenzin,[12] Budeprion, Buproban, buprapan, Forfivo, Voxra, Zyban,[8] Bupron, Bupisure, Bupep, Smoquite, Elontril, Oribion and Buxon.[citation needed]

Research

Bupropion has been studied limitedly in the treatment of social anxiety disorder.[213][214][215]

See also

References

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