Middle Ages
In the
During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased greatly as the
Difficulties and calamities, including a
Terminology and periodisation
The Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing
The Middle Ages customarily spans the period between around 500 and 1500 but both the start and end years are arbitrary.
Europe, as the historian
Historians from Romance language-speaking countries tend to divide the Middle Ages into two parts: an earlier "high" and later "low" period. English-speaking historians, following their German counterparts, generally subdivide the period into three intervals: Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.[13] In the 19th century, the entire Middle Ages were often referred to as the Dark Ages, but with the adoption of the three subdivisions in the early 20th century, use of the term was restricted to the Early Middle Ages.[14] Historians who regard the Middle Ages as a Eurocentric concept tend to avoid its use for global history, although studies on "Medieval India", "Muslim Middle Ages", and similar subjects are not exceptional.[15][16]
Sources
Certain aspects of medieval society (including the life of
Since the 1950s, archaeology have significantly contributed to the study of the history of poorly documented regions and periods, although chronological dating is still uncertain.[22] Legislation may influence archaeological research: new finds of coins and hoards are frequently exhibited in jurisdictions with a liberal regulation, such as England and Wales, whereas in other countries, such as Italy, finds from unofficial excavations are exceptionally published.[23] As few detailed written records documenting peasant life remain from before the 9th century, surviving information available to historians comes mainly from archaeology.[24] Medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life but a critical approach is warranted because irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists.[25]
Later Roman Empire
The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the 2nd century AD; the following two centuries witnessed the slow decline of Roman control over its outlying territories.[26] Runaway inflation, external pressure on the frontiers, and outbreaks of plague combined to create the Crisis of the Third Century.[27] The army doubled in size,[28] and military expenses steadily increased, mainly in response to the war with the Sasanian Empire.[29] The need for revenue led to increased taxes, more centralised and bureaucratic state administration, and a decline in numbers of the curial, or landowning, class.[29][28] Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) split the empire into separately administered eastern and western halves in 286. This system, which eventually encompassed two senior and two junior co-emperors (hence known as the Tetrarchy) stabilised the imperial government for about two decades.[30] After a period of civil war, Constantine the Great restored internal peace, and refounded the city of Byzantium as the newly renamed eastern capital, Constantinople in 330.[31]
Roman society stabilised in a new form that differed from the earlier
By the 3rd century, the Early Christians developed their own symbolism, often by reinterpreting popular motifs of pagan Roman art.[37] The solemnity of the Later Roman artists' abstract style effectively visualised Christian messages,[38] and Christ's enthroned figure became a principal element of Early Christian art.[39] Under Constantine, basilicas, large halls that had been used for administrative and commercial purposes, were adapted for Christian worship.[40] The first illuminated manuscripts—hand-written books decorated with colourful miniatures—were produced in parallel with the spread of silent reading in the 5th century.[41]
New civil wars between rival emperors diverted soldiers from the empire's frontier forces, allowing invaders to encroach from the middle of the 4th century.[42] Although these movements of peoples are usually described as "invasions", they were often not just military expeditions but mass migrations into the empire.[43] In 376, hundreds of thousands of Goths, fleeing from the Huns, received permission from Emperor Valens (r. 364–78) to settle in Roman territory in the Balkans. The settlement did not go smoothly, and when Roman officials mishandled the situation, the Goths began to raid and plunder.[note 2] Valens, attempting to put down the disorder, was killed fighting the Goths at the Battle of Adrianople.[45] The Alans, Vandals, and Suebi crossed into Gaul in 406, and into modern-day Spain in 409; a year later, the Visigoths, a Gothic group, sacked the city of Rome.[46][47] The Franks, Alemanni, and the Burgundians all ended up in Gaul; the Germanic groups now collectively known as Anglo-Saxons settled in Britain;[48] and the Vandals conquered the province of Africa.[49] The Hunnic king Attila (r. 434–53) led invasions into the Balkans in 442 and 447, Gaul in 451, and Italy in 452 but the Hunnic confederation he led fell apart after his death.[50]
When dealing with the migrations, the Eastern Roman elites combined the deployment of armed forces with gifts and grants of offices to the tribal leaders, whereas the Western aristocrats failed to support the army but also refused to pay tribute to prevent invasions by the tribes.
Early Middle Ages
Post-Roman kingdoms
In the post-Roman world, the fusion of Roman culture with the customs of the invading tribes is well documented. Popular assemblies that allowed free male tribal members more say in political matters than had been common in the Roman state developed into legislative and judicial bodies.[55] Material artefacts left by the Romans and the invaders are often similar, and tribal items were often modelled on Roman objects.[56] Much of the scholarly and written culture of the new political entities was based on Roman intellectual traditions.[57] Many of them no longer supported their armies through taxes, instead relying on granting them land or rents. This meant there was less need for large tax revenues and so the taxation systems decayed.[58]
In Britain, the local Celtic Britons' culture had little impact on the Anglo-Saxons' way of life, but the linguistic assimilation of masses of the natives to the newcomers is evident. By around 600, new political centres emerged, some local leaders accumulated considerable wealth, and a number of small kingdoms such as Wessex and Mercia were formed. Smaller kingdoms in present-day Wales and Scotland were still under the control of the native Britons and Picts.[59] Ireland was divided into even smaller political units, perhaps as many as 150 tribal kingdoms.[60]
The
Other monarchies were established by the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula, the Suebi in northwestern Iberia, the Vandals in North Africa,[66] and the Lombards in Northern Italy.[67] Coming from the Asian steppes, the nomadic Avars conquered most Slavic, Turkic and Germanic tribes in the lowlands along the Lower and Middle Danube by the end of the 6th century, and they were routinely able to force the Byzantine emperors to pay tribute.[68] In 681, another steppe people, the Bulgars defeated a Byzantine imperial army, and established the First Bulgarian Empire, subjugating the local Slavic tribes near the Danube Delta.[69]
The settlement of peoples was accompanied by changes in languages.
Byzantine survival
The Eastern Roman Empire remained intact and experienced an economic revival that lasted into the early 7th century. Here political life was marked by closer relations between the political state and Christian Church, with theological matters assuming an importance in Eastern politics that they did not have in Western Europe.[71] Legal developments included the codification of Roman law;[72] the most comprehensive compilation, the Corpus Juris Civilis, took place under Emperor Justinian (r. 527–65).[73] The Byzantines regularly employed eunuchs for administrative tasks, or as guardians or tutors to women and children, as they regarded castrated men as exceptionally intelligent and loyal servants.[74]
Justinian nearly perished during the Nika riots, a popular revolt that destroyed half of Constantinople in 532. After crushing the revolt, he reinforced the autocratic elements of the imperial government and mobilised his troops against the Arian western kingdoms. The general Belisarius (d. 565) conquered North Africa from the Vandals, and attacked the Ostrogoths, but the campaign was interrupted by an unexpected Sasanian invasion from the east. Between 541 and 543, a deadly outbreak of plague decimated the empire's population. Justinian developed an extensive system of border forts to cover the lack of military personnel but ceased to finance the maintenance of public roads. In a decade, he resumed expansionism, completing the conquest of the Ostrogothic kingdom, and seizing much of southern Spain from the Visigoths.[75]
Justinian's reconquests and excessive building program have been criticised by historians for bringing his realm to the brink of bankruptcy, but many of the difficulties faced by Justinian's successors were because of other factors, including the massive expansion of the Avars and their Slav allies.[76] In the east, border defences collapsed during a new war with the Sasanian Empire, and the Persians seized Egypt, Syria, and much of Anatolia. In 626, the Avars, Slavs and Persians attacked Constantinople but could not conquer it. Two years later, Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–41) launched an unexpected counterattack against the heart of the Sassanian Empire, recovering all territories previously lost to the Persians.[77]
Western society
In Western Europe, values attached to
Women took part in aristocratic society mainly in their roles as wives and mothers, with the role of mother of an underage ruler being especially prominent in Francia. In Anglo-Saxon society the lack of many child rulers meant a lesser role for women as queen mothers, but this was compensated for by the increased role played by
City life and culture was declining. Although the northern Italian cities remained inhabited, they contracted significantly in size.
Rise of Islam
Religious beliefs were in flux in the lands along the Eastern Roman and Persian frontiers, as state-sponsored Roman missionaries proselytised among the pagan steppe peoples, and the Persians made attempts to enforce
The conquerors bypassed the mountainous northwestern region of the Iberian Peninsula. Here a small kingdom,
Trade and economy
As the migrations and conquests disrupted trade networks throughout the old Roman lands, goods from long-range trade were replaced with local products. Non-local goods appearing in the archaeological record are usually luxury goods or metalworks.[105] In the 7th and 8th centuries, new commercial networks were developing in northern Europe. Goods like furs, walrus ivory and amber were delivered from the Baltic region to western Europe, triggering the establishment of toll stations and conflicts over their control.[106] In the post-Roman kingdoms, base metal coinage nearly ceased but Roman bronze coins remained in circulation. Although gold coins were struck, they were mainly spent for extraordinary expenditures, such as the purchase of land or luxury goods. A shift from gold coinage to the mint of silver pennies began in the late 7th century, not independently of the cessation of Byzantine subsidy payments to the Lombards and Franks. The elites' new emphasis on Christian charity also increased the demand for coins of lower value.[107]
The flourishing Islamic economies' constant demand for fresh labour force and raw materials opened up a new market for Europe around 750. Europe emerged as a major supplier of house slaves and slave soldiers for Al-Andalus, northern Africa and the Levant.[108][109] In addition, timber, fur and arms were delivered from Europe to the Mediterranean, while Europe imported spices, medicine, incense, and silk.[110] The large rivers connecting distant regions facilitated the expansion of transcontinental trade.[111] Contemporaneous reports indicate that Anglo-Saxon merchants visited fairs at Paris, pirates preyed on tradesman on the Danube, and Eastern Frankish merchants reached as far as Zaragoza in Al-Andalus.[112]
Church life
The idea of Christian unity endured, although differences in ideology and practice between the Eastern and Western Churches were growing.[113] The native Romans' aversion to the Arian conquerors reinforced the traditional Christian concept of the separation of church and state in the west, whereas this notion was alien to eastern clergymen who regarded the Roman state as an instrument of divine providence.[113] After the Muslim conquests, the Byzantine emperors could less effectively intervene in the west. When Leo III (r. 717–41) prohibited the display of paintings representing human figures in places of worship, the papacy openly rejected his claim to declare new dogmas by imperial edicts.[114] Although the Byzantine Church condemned iconoclasm in 843, further issues such as fierce rivalry for ecclesiastic jurisdiction over newly converted peoples, and the unilateral modification of the Nicene Creed in the west widened to the extent that the differences were greater than the similarities.[115] In the west, the tithe, originally a voluntarily contribution, was levied as a regular church tax on agrarian products from the 10th century.[116]
Few of the Western bishops looked to the papacy for leadership. The only part of Western Europe where the papacy had influence was Britain, where Gregory the Great (pope 590–604) had sent a mission to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity.[117] People did not visit churches regularly. Instead, meetings with itinerant clergy and pilgrimages to popular saints' shrines were instrumental in religious education.[118] Irish missionaries were most active in Western Europe between the 5th and the 7th centuries.[119] They were the first to use special handbooks known as penitentials to determine the appropriate acts of penance—typically prayers, and fasts—for sinners. They placed a special emphasis on sexuality and prescribed severe penances for adulterers, fornicators and those engaged in non-reproductive sexual acts, such as homosexuals.[120] In contrast with official Christianity, the Bogomils of the Balkans condemned sexual reproduction as they regarded Satan the creator of the physical universe.[121]
The Early Middle Ages witnessed the rise of Christian monasticism. Monastic ideals spread from Egypt through hagiographical literature, especially the Life of Anthony. Most European monasteries were of the type that focuses on community experience of the spiritual life, called cenobitism.[122] The Italian monk Benedict of Nursia (d. 547) developed the Benedictine Rule which became widely used in western monasteries.[123] In the east, the monastic rules compiled by Theodore the Studite (d. 826) gained popularity after they were adopted in the Great Lavra on Mount Athos in the 960s.[124]
Monasteries had a deep effect on the local society, in various cases acting as
In Western Christendom, lay influence over church affairs came to a climax in the 10th century. Aristocrats regarded the churches and monasteries under their patronage as their personal property, and simony—the sale of church offices—was a common practice. Simony aroused a general fear as many believed that irregularly appointed priests could not confer valid sacraments such as baptism.[131] Monastic communities were the first to react to this fear by the rigorous observance of their rules. The establishment of Cluny Abbey in Burgundy in 909 initiated a more radical change as Cluny was freed from lay control and placed under the protection of the papacy. The Cluniac Reforms indicated that the reformist idea of the "Liberty of the Church" could be achieved through submission to the papacy.[132]
Carolingian Europe
The Merovingian kings customarily distributed Francia among their sons and destroyed their own power base by extensive land grants. In the northeastern Frankish kingdom
The Carolingians, as Charles Martel's descendants are known, succeeded the Merovingians as the new royal dynasty of Francia in 751. This year the last Merovingian king Childeric III (r. 743–51) was deposed, and Charles Martel's son Pepin the Short (r. 751–68) was crowned king with the consent of the Frankish leaders and the papacy. Pepin attacked the Lombards and enforced their promise to respect the possessions of the papacy. His subsequent donation of Central Italian territories to the Holy See marked the beginnings of the Papal States.[134][135]
Pepin left his kingdom in the hands of his two sons, Charles, more often known as
The empire was administered by an itinerant court that travelled with the emperor, as well as approximately 300 imperial officials called counts, who administered the counties the empire had been divided into.[140] The central administration supervised the counts through imperial emissaries called missi dominici. They served as roving inspectors and troubleshooters. The clerics of the royal chapel were responsible for recording important royal grants and decisions.[141]
Charlemagne's court was the centre of the cultural revival sometimes referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance. Literacy increased, as did development in the arts, architecture and jurisprudence, as well as liturgical and scriptural studies under the auspices of the Anglo-Saxon scholar Alcuin (d. 804). He developed a new script, today known as Carolingian minuscule, which facilitated reading by the clear separation of words, and the use of extensive punctuation. Charlemagne sponsored changes in church liturgy, imposing the Roman form of church service on his domains, as well as the Gregorian chant in liturgical music for the churches. An important activity for scholars during this period was the copying, correcting, and dissemination of basic works on religious and secular topics, with the aim of encouraging learning. New works on various topics and schoolbooks were also produced.[note 9][143]
Breakup of the Carolingian Empire
Charlemagne continued the Frankish tradition of dividing his empire between all his sons, but only one son,
There was a brief re-uniting of the empire by Charles the Fat in 884, although the actual units of the empire retained their separate administrations.[147] By the time he died early in 888, the Carolingians were close to extinction, and non-dynastic claimants assumed power in most of the successor states, such as the Parisien count Odo in Francia (r. 888–98).[148] In the eastern lands the dynasty died out with the death of Louis the Child (r. 899–911), and the selection of the Franconian duke Conrad I (r. 911–18) as king.[149] In West Francia, the dynasty was restored first in 898, then in 936, but the last Carolingians were unable to keep the aristocracy under control. In 987, the dynasty was replaced, with the crowning of the powerful aristocrat Hugh Capet (r. 987–96) as king.[note 10][150]
Frankish culture and the Carolingian methods of state administration had a significant impact on the neighboring peoples. Frankish threat triggered the formation of new states along the empire's eastern frontier—Bohemia, Moravia, and Croatia.[151] The breakup of the Carolingian Empire was accompanied by invasions, migrations, and raids by external foes. The Atlantic and northern shores were harassed by the Vikings, who also raided the British Isles and settled there. In 911, the Viking chieftain Rollo (d. c. 931) received permission from the Frankish king Charles the Simple (r. 898–922) to settle in what became Normandy. The eastern parts of the Frankish kingdoms, especially Germany and Italy, were under continual Magyar assault until the invaders' defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955.[152] In the Mediterranean, Arab pirates launched regular raids against Italy and southern France, and the Aghlabids conquered Sicily, and the Umayyads of Al-Andalus annexed the Balearic Islands.[153]
New kingdoms and Byzantine revival
The Vikings' settlement in the British Isles led to the formation of new political entities, including the small but militant Kingdom of Dublin in Ireland.[154] The Anglo-Saxon king Alfred the Great (r. 871–99) came to an agreement with Danish invaders in 879, acknowledging the existence of an independent Viking realm in Britain.[155][156] By the middle of the 10th century, Alfred's successors had restored Anglo-Saxon control over the territory.[157] In northern Britain, Kenneth MacAlpin (d. c. 860) united the Picts and the Scots into the Kingdom of Alba.[158]
In the early 10th century, the
The Eastern European trade routes towards Asia were controlled by the
Byzantium revived its fortunes under Emperor Basil I (r. 867–86) and his successors Leo VI (r. 886–912) and Constantine VII (r. 913–59), members of the Macedonian dynasty. The imperial court was the centre of a revival of classical learning, a process known as the Macedonian Renaissance. The military was reorganised, which allowed the emperors John I (r. 969–76) and Basil II (r. 976–1025) to expand the frontiers of the empire.[167]
Missionary efforts by both Eastern and Western clergy resulted in the conversion of the
Architecture and art
New basilicas were built in the major Roman cities and the post-Roman kingdoms in the 4th–6th centuries.[note 11][174] Byzantine church architecture adopted an alternative model imitating the rectangular plan and the dome of Justinian's Hagia Sophia, the largest single roofed structure of the Roman world.[175] As the spacious basilicas became of little use with the decline of urban centres in the west, they gave way to smaller churches until the basilica form of architecture revived in the Carolingian Empire.[176] One new standard feature of Carolingian basilicas is the use of a transept, or the "arms" of a T-shaped building that are perpendicular to the long nave.[177] In Al-Andalus, the Great Mosque of Córdoba became an extraordinary monument of Moorish architecture.[178]
Magnificent halls built of timber or stone were the centres of political and social life. Their design often adopted elements of Later Roman architecture like pilasters, columns, and sculptured discs.[note 12][179] After the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire, the spread of aristocratic castles indicates a transition from communal fortifications to private defence. Most castles were wooden structures but the wealthiest lords built stone fortresses.[note 13] One or more towers, now known as keeps, were their most characteristic features but castles often developed into multifunctional compounds with their drawbridges, fortified courtyards, cisterns or wells, halls, chapels, stables and workshops.[181]
Gold pouring to the tribal leaders from the Roman Empire was regularly remoulded into new artifacts, such as massive necklaces, and eagle-shaped
The
Military and technology
The creation of heavily armoured
The importance of infantry and light cavalry began to decline during the early Carolingian period, with a growing dominance of elite heavy cavalry, although a large proportion of the armies appear to have been mounted infantry, rather than true cavalry.[200] The use of militia-type levies of the free population declined. One exception was Anglo-Saxon England, where the armies were still composed of regional levies, known as the fyrd.[201] In military technology, one of the main changes was the reappearance of the crossbow as a military weapon.[202] A technological advance that had implications beyond the military was the horseshoe, which allowed horses to be used in rocky terrain.[203]
High Middle Ages
Society
Between around 950 and 1060, severe draughts hit the Middle East, and the
Feudalism regulated fundamental social relations in many parts of Europe. In this system, one party granted property, typically land to the other in return for services, mostly of military nature that the recipient, or vassal, had to render to the grantor, or lord.[207][208] In other parts of Europe, such as Germany, Poland, and Hungary, inalienable allods remained the dominant forms of landholding. Their owners owed homage to the king or a higher-ranking aristocrat but their landholding was free of feudal obligations.[209][210] In the Byzantine Empire and the Balkan states, the pronoia system—landholding with limited rights—assured to the benefit of the military aristocracy.[211]
Most medieval western thinkers divided the society into three
With the development of heavy cavalry, the previously uniform class of free warriors split into two groups. Those who could equip themselves as mounted knights were integrated into the traditional aristocracy, but others were assimilated into the peasantry.[219] The new elite's position was stabilised through the adoption of strict inheritance customs, such as primogeniture—the eldest son's right to inherit the family domains undivided.[220] Nobles were stratified in terms of the land and people over whom they held authority; the lowest-ranking nobles did not hold land and had no vassals.[note 17][222] The nobility was never a closed group: kings could raise commoners to the aristocracy, wealthy commoners could marry into noble families, and impoverished aristocrats could loose their privileged status.[223] Western aristocrats often moved to the peripheries of Latin Christendom either with the support of local rulers who appreciated their military skills, or as conquerors.[note 18] French-speaking noblemen mainly settled in the British Isles, southern Italy or Iberia, whereas German aristocrats preferred Central and Eastern Europe.[225]
The clergy was divided into two types. The
Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman. Women's work generally consisted of household or other domestically inclined tasks such as child-care. Peasant women could supplement the household income by spinning or brewing at home, and they also did field-work at harvest-time.[231] Townswomen could engage in trade but often only by right of their husband, and unlike their male competitors, they were not always allowed to train apprentices.[232] Noblewomen could inherit land in the absence of a male heir but their potential to give birth to children was regarded as their principal virtue.[233] As women were not ordained priests, the only role open to them in the Church was that of nuns.[234]
Economic revival
The expansion of population, greater agricultural productivity and relative political stability laid the foundations for the medieval "
As local commercial centres developed into towns, the economic growth brought about a new wave of urbanisation. Kings and aristocrats mainly supported the process in the hope of increased tax revenues.[240] Most urban communities received privileges acknowledging their autonomy, but few cities could get rid of all elements of external control.[241] Townspeople engaged in the same trade or profession were united in confraternities known as guilds. Typically, these associations set the rules for quality, training, and pricing, and only their members had access to the local market.[242][243]
The Italian
Economic growth provided opportunities to Jewish merchants to spread all over Europe with the local rulers' support.[247] As the Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, they often took despised jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors.[248] They were especially active in moneylending for they could ignore the Christian clerics' condemnation on loan interest.[249] The Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced antisemitism, which led to blood libels and pogroms. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired segregationist laws,[note 20] and even the Jews' permanent expulsion from England.[251]
Church reforms
In the early 11th century, papal elections were controlled by Roman aristocrats, but Emperor Henry III (r. 1039–56) broke their power and placed reform-minded clerics on the papal throne. Through popular support, they achieved the acknowledgement of their supreme jurisdiction in church affairs in many parts of Europe.[252] In contrast, the head of the Byzantine Church Patriarch Michael I Cerularius (d. 1059) refused papal supremacy for which a papal legate excommunicated him in 1054. Eventually, after a string of mutual excommunications, this event, known as the East–West Schism, led to the separation of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.[253][254]
Lay investiture—the appointment of clerics by secular rulers—was condemned at an assembly of bishops in Rome in 1059.[255] Henry's son and successor Henry IV (r. 1056–1105) wanted to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands but his appointments outraged Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85). Their quarrel developed into the Investiture Controversy, involving other powers as well because kings did not relinquish the control of appointments to bishoprics voluntarily. All conflicts ended with a compromise, in the case of the Holy Roman Emperors with the 1122 Concordat of Worms.[note 21][257][258]
The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements.
Individuals who were thought to receive divine revelations might present a challenge to clerical monopolies but most of them respected official doctrines. The veneration of popular mystics, such as Francis of Assisi (d. 1226), was often sanctioned by church authorities.[265] Many popular mystics were women.[266] Among them, the nun Hildegard of Bingen (d. 1179/80) was a prolific and highly respected scholar, who proudly stated that "no man can be made without a woman".[note 22][268][267] Jewish mysticism culminated in the compilation of the Zohar ('The Book of Illumination'), a 13th-century summary of kabbalistic teaching.[269]
Rise of state power
The High Middle Ages saw the development of institutions that would dominate political life in Europe until the late 18th century, or even further.
The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world.
In the
The French monarchy slowly began to expand its authority over the nobility.
The Iberian Christian states began to push back against the Islamic powers in the south, a period known as the
In the east, Kievan Rus' fell apart into independent principalities. Among them, the northern Vladimir-Suzdal emerged as the dominant power after Suzdalian troops sacked Kyiv in 1169.[307] Poland also disintegrated into autonomous duchies, enabling the Czech kings to expand in the prosperous Duchy of Silesia.[308] The kings of Hungary seized Croatia but respected the liberties of the native aristocracy. They claimed (but only periodically achieved) suzerainty over other lands and peoples such as Dalmatia, Bosnia, and the nomadic Cumans.[309] The Cumans supported the Bulgarians and Vlachs during their anti-Byzantine revolt that led to the restoration of Bulgaria in the late 12th century.[310] To the west of Bulgaria, Serbia gained independence.[311]
With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the Eurasian Steppe under Genghis Khan (r. 1206–27), a new expansionist power reached Europe.[312] Between 1236 and 1242, the Mongols conquered Volga Bulgaria, shattered the Rus' principalities, and laid waste to large regions in Poland, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia and Bulgaria. Their commander-in-chief Batu Khan (r. 1241–56)—a grandson of Genghis Khan—set up his capital at Sarai on the Volga, establishing the Golden Horde, a virtually autonomous Mongol state. The Mongols extracted heavy tribute from the Rus' principalities, and the Rus' princes had to ingratiate themselves with the Mongol khans for economic and political concessions.[note 27][314] Under Mongol pressure, the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate disintegrated into small but often aggressive Turkic lordships, such as the one ruled by the Ottoman clan on the Byzantine border.[315] The Mongol conquest was followed by a peaceful period in Eastern Europe which facilitated the development of direct trade contacts between Europe and China through newly established Genoese colonies in the Black Sea region.[316] The new land and sea routes to the Far East were famously described in The Travels of Marco Polo written by one of the traders, Marco Polo (d. 1324).[235]
Crusades
Clashes with secular powers led to the militarisation of the papacy. In response to a Byzantine appeal for military aid against the Seljuk Turks, Pope
The papacy used the crusading ideology in other
With its specific ceremonies and institutions, the
Intellectual life
The discovery of a copy of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century paved the way for the systematic study of Roman law at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe.[note 31] Around 1140, the monk Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of ecclesiastical law, or canon law—the Decretum Gratiani.[345] Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy benefited from the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.[346]
Architecture and arts
Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège.[355] Few wall-paintings survive although references to images abound in written sources. The employment of itinerant artists, and the use of sketches made of murals facilitated the transmission of artistic motifs over large territory.[note 35] Embroidery flourished as the churches and castles were decorated by tapestries, and clerical vestments were adorned by needlework images.[357]
Structural innovations introduced the development of the Gothic style from Romanesque. These included pointed arches for the reduction of lateral thrust, flying buttresses to reinforce the walls, and rib vaults to minimise their static importance. The new solutions allowed the extensive use of large stained glass windows.[358] The Gothic architecture emerged as a combination of all these during the reconstruction of the Saint-Denis Abbey near Paris under Abbot Suger (d. 1151).[359][360] The new style quickly spread and dominated religious architecture in much of Catholic Europe till the end of the Middle Ages.[note 36][363]
The practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people.[364] Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option.[365] In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco.[366] Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.[367]
Technology and military
Technology developed mainly through minor innovations and by the adoption of advanced technologies from Asia through Muslim mediation.
The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops increased the usage of land by more than 30 per cent, with a consequent increase in production.[375] The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently. The spread of horse collar led to the use of draught horses that required less pastures than oxen.[376] Legumes—such as peas, beans, or lentils—were grown more widely, in addition to the cereal crops.[377]
In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry
Late Middle Ages
Society and economy
Average annual temperature was declining from around 1200, introducing the gradual transition to the Little Ice Age. Climate anomalies caused agricultural crises, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17.[383] As the starving peasants slaughtered their draft animals, those who survived had to make extraordinary efforts to revive farming.[384] These troubles were followed in 1346 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe, killing about one-third of the population. As plague continued to strike Europe regularly until 1400, the total population reduced by about 50 percent.[note 39][385]
The trauma of the plague led to savage
Labour services the peasants owed for their land tenure were often changed into cash rents, providing the landlords with a stable source of income. Landlords joined to extort privileges from their governments but royal administration started to protect the interests of the poor.[392] Serfdom was officially abolished in many places,[393] although in other regions, mainly in Central and Eastern Europe, it was imposed on tenants who had previously been free.[394] The rise of banking continued, fuelled partly by the crossborder movement of papal revenues with the mediation of large merchant houses. These also loaned money to warring royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.[note 41][396]
The Jewish communities were permanently expelled from France, and at least provisionally from most German cities and principalities. In contrast, the Hungarian and Polish rulers encouraged the Jewish moneylenders' immigration.[397] Massive pogroms led to the mass conversion of Spanish Jewry in 1391. As the "New Christians" were suspected of heresy, the Spanish Inquisition was established to inspect their faith. The Jews who refused to convert were exiled from Spain in 1492, and from Portugal in 1497. Most Spanish Jews left for the Ottoman Empire.[398][399]
State resurgence
Although the growth of central governments continued, still more than 500 autonomous polities existed at the end of the period.[400] Successful dynasties reigned over several states mainly in close cooperation with local elites but could not freely redistribute resources among their realms.[note 42][401] Fiscal and military matters were regularly discussed with the representatives of elite groups—primarily the nobility, prelates, and burghers—at legislative assemblies known as parliament, diet, cortes, or Landtag.[402] Legal procedures improved as discretionary justice, previously dispensed by kings and their retainers, was delegated to professional lawyers.[401]
In Germany, the elected emperors were no more than supreme arbitrators even if they had a significant power base in their hereditary lands.
Succession troubles were not uncommon in the Iberian kingdoms, as intermarriages between the royal houses created conflicting claims to the thrones, and royal bastards could successfully claim their father's inheritance.[416][417] Portugal opened a new theater of anti-Muslim warfare in Morocco by seizing Ceuta in 1415.[418] Aragon and Castile were riven by conflicts between magnate factions or over the limits of royal government but the Castilian Isabella I (r. 1474–1504) and her Aragonese husband Ferdinand II (r. 1479–1516) reinforced royal power.[419] They completed the Reconquista by conquering Granada in 1492.[420]
The idea of elective kingship revived in the Central European and Scandinavian monarchies for various reasons, including the aristocrats' aversion to foreign influence.[421][422] Royal power was restored in Poland early in the 14th century, in a period when the Teutonic Knights' expansion intensified. The Knights primarily targeted Lithuania, a loose confederation of mainly pagan Lithuanian chieftains and Orthodox Rus' principalities. The common enemy prompted a persisting Polish–Lithuanian union, sealed by the marriage of the Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila (r. 1377–1434) with the Polish queen Jadwiga (r. 1384–99),[note 44] and the Lithuanians' conversion to Catholicism.[424][425] In Scandinavia, Margaret I of Denmark (r. 1387–1412) consolidated Denmark, Norway, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar in 1397 but only the Danish–Norwegian union proved lasting.[note 45][428]
After Polish, Hungarian, and Lithuanian invasions, and succession crises undermined the Golden Horde's power in the 14th century, the princes of Muscovy began annexing the Rus' principalities often in competition with Lithuania.[note 46] Under Grand Prince Ivan III (r. 1462–1505), the conquest of the great trading cities of Novgorod and Tver completed Muscovy's dominance in the northeast.[431][432] In southeastern Europe, two small Vlach principalities emerged, Wallachia and Moldavia; their rulers mainly accepted the suzerainty of the Hungarian or Polish kings.[433]
Collapse of Byzantium and rise of the Ottomans
Facing financial crises and threats from the west, the restored Byzantine Empire was unable to prevent the Turks' expansion in Anatolia. Revolts by
Controversy within the Church
As prolonged
Theological debates intensified.[448] John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, criticised popular acts of devotion, such as pilgrimages, and challenged the Catholic doctrine on the Eucharist.[449] His teachings influenced two major movements condemned as heretics by the official Church: Lollardy in England, and Hussitism in Bohemia.[450] The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of the Czech theologian Jan Hus (d. 1415) who was burned at the stake at Constance. Hussitism, although the target of anti-heretic crusades, survived as an officially recognised denomination in Bohemia.[note 49][452][453] In the hope of western support against the Ottomans, Byzantine church leaders submitted themselves to the papacy at the Council of Florence in 1438–39, but most Orthodox believers rejected papal supremacy, and those who supported the church union died in exile.[note 50][455]
Mysticism and devotional literature flourished.
Scholars, intellectuals, and exploration
Prominent late medieval philosophers departed from Aristotelian logic. Among them,
The poetry of
Several factors, primarily a growing demand for gold and the European merchants' eagerness to avoid custom payments prompted the search for a direct maritime route towards India along the African coasts. Initially, the Portuguese assumed the leadership of the explorations:
Technological and military developments
In cloth production, the second main employer after agriculture,[475] the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun,[371] and the use of buttons as closures for garments enabled better fit.[476] Popular tailoring designs were quickly spread by pedlars, and trends in fashion were dictated by the Burgundian dukes' court in much of 15th-century Europe.[477] In metalworking, the blast furnace increased the quantity of iron produced, also improving its quality.[478] The first patent law in 1447 in Venice granted a ten-year monopoly to inventors for their inventions.[479]
As increased tax revenues allowed the employment of
Art and architecture
The wealthiest Italian and French princes regularly hired foreign artists which led to the convergence of courtly styles. This "International Gothic" reached much of Europe around 1400, producing masterpieces in sculpture and miniature.[note 53][487][488] All over Europe, secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century, the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery.[489] In France and Flanders, tapestry weaving of sets like The Lady and the Unicorn became a major luxury industry.[490]
In Italy, Florence emerged as the center of intellectual and artistic life for most of the
Printing houses established all over Europe began the mass production of cheap playing cards and primitive religious images in the mid-15th century. Block books—woodcuts containing both illustrations and text—rapidly became popular, with best-sellers such as the Biblia pauperum ('Paupers' Bible'), and Ars moriendi ('Art of Dying').[493] Horror stories were also widely read, including the German booklets about the cruel acts of the Wallachian prince Vlad the Impaler (r. 1456–62).[494] The first large illustrated printed book, the Nuremberg Chronicle was published in 1493.[495]
Modern perceptions and historiography
The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of barbarism, ignorance, and superstition" that placed "religious authority above personal experience and rational activity" (David Lindberg).[496] This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment when scholars favourably contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the classical world. Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.[11] The caricature of the period is reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat.[497] This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere.[498] Science historian Edward Grant even argues, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed in the Age of Reason, they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".[499]
In the 19th century, the brutality of the
Notes
- ^ Medieval writers had divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, and considered their time to be the last before the end of the world.[5]
- ^ The commanders of the Roman military in the area appear to have taken food and other supplies intended to be given to the Goths and instead sold them to the Goths. The revolt was triggered when one of the Roman military commanders attempted to take the Gothic leaders hostage but failed to secure all of them.[44]
- ^ The year 476 has traditionally marked the end of the Western Roman Empire, but an alternative date of 480 is sometimes given, as that was the year Romulus Augustulus' predecessor Julius Nepos (r. 474–75) died; Nepos had continued to assert that he was the Western emperor while holding onto Dalmatia.[53]
- ^ Brittany takes its name from this settlement by Britons.[65]
- ^ Among the powerful women, the Arian Visigothic queen Goiswintha (d. 589) was a vehement but unsuccessful opponent of her people's conversion to Catholicism, and the Frankish queen Brunhilda of Austrasia (d. 613) was torn to pieces by horses at the age of 70.[82]
- ^ In the 9th century, Unn the Deep-Minded assumed the command of a knarr ship after her son died; the 10th-century "Birka Warrior" was a woman interred with an axe, sword, quiver of arrows, and spears.[84]
- ^ Rome, for instance, shrank from a population of hundreds of thousands to around 30,000 by the end of the 6th century.[93]
- ^ Among the Slav rulers, Liudewit (d. 823) held lands along the Sava river, and Pribina (d. 861) in the March of Pannonia.[137]
- ^ The Vita Karoli Magni ('Life of Charlemagne') by Einhard (d. 840) is a prominent example of original historical works.[142]
- ^ Hugh Capet was a grandson of King Odo's brother Robert I, himself also a king of West Francia (r. 922–23).[150]
- ^ Examples include a 4th-century basilica uncovered under the Barcelona Cathedral, the five-aisled Cathedral of Saint Étienne in Paris, and the huge Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna.[174]
- ^ Later Roman ornaments decorate Charlemagne's palace at Aachen, the Carolingian royal palace at Ingelheim, and the Asturian kings' palace at Oviedo.[179]
- ^ An early example of stone fortresses is the residential keep built by Theobald I, Count of Blois (d. 975) around 950.[180]
- ^ As illuminated books were flowing from the British Isles to Francia, the Insular style had a marked impact on Frankish art.[185]
- ^ Under the Macedonian emperors, the old churches were redecorated, and the newly built churches, like the Daphni Monastery in Greece, were embellished with mosaics and icons. Richly decorated ivory panels, such as the Harbaville Triptych, show the renewal of ivory carving during the same period.[188]
- ^ Examples include vivid caricatures in the Utrecht Psalter, and more naturalistic miniatures in the Gospel Book of Charlemagne.[191]
- ^ In France, Germany, and the Low Countries there was a further type of "noble", the ministerialis, who were in effect unfree knights. They descended from serfs who had served as warriors or government officials, which increased status allowed their descendants to hold fiefs as well as become knights while still being technically serfs.[221]
- ^ For instance, the Anglo-Norman aristocrat Robert Bruce (d. 1141) received the Lordship of Annandale in southern Scotland from King David I (r. 1124–53), whereas John de Courcy (d. 1219), also an Anglo-Norman knight, seized Ulaid in Ireland by force.[224]
- ^ These two groups—Germans and Italians—took different approaches to their trading arrangements. Most German cities co-operated when dealing with the northern rulers; in contrast, the Italian city-states engaged in internecine strife, culminating in the War of Saint Sabas in the Levant.[244]
- ^ The Jews were required to wear a distinctive badge on their cloths and to live in their own districts in the towns.[250]
- ^ Most compromises were based on a distinction between a prelate's spiritual and temporal responsibilities. This allowed the bishops and abbots to swear an oath of fealty to the emperor or king in return for their investment in the possessions of bishoprics and abbeys without formally sanctioning the monarch's claim to control their election.[256]
- female orgasm.[267]
- ^ The formation of the idea is mainly attributed to the early modern philosophers Jean Bodin (d. 1596) and Thomas Hobbes (d. 1679) but the concept developed during the conflicts between the emperors and the papacy. Already in 1202, a papal decretal stated that "a king is an emperor in his kingdom", expressing that kings were not subject to the emperor's authority, and implying the equal status of secular monarchs.[271]
- ^ Frederick II was famed for his erudition and unconventional life style: he had a harem, was dressed in Arab-style garments, and wore a mantle decorated with verses from the Quran during his imperial coronation in Rome.[286]
- ^ Henry inherited Anjou from his father, and seized Aquitaine by marrying the heiress Eleanor (r. 1137–1204) just months after her marriage to Louis VII of France (r. 1137–80) had been annulled.[293]
- Novgorod, and received a grant of tax exemption for the Orthodox Church.[313]
- ^ After the fall of Constantinople to the crusaders, three Byzantine successor states emerged: Epirus in northern Greece and Albania, Nicaea in western Anatolia, and Trebizond in northeastern Anatolia. Michael VIII had ruled Nicaea before seizing Constantinople.[324]
- ^ Those who decided to participate in a crusade took an oath and placed the mark of the cross on their cloths. The crusaders enjoyed privileges, including a moratorium on debts, but those who failed to fulfil the crusader oath faced infamy or excommunication.[327]
- Alan of Lille (d. 1202/03), and Stabat Mater, a hymn to Virgin Mary.[341]
- trial by jury by royal courts.[344]
- ^ Reportedly, the tall torri ('towers') made some Italian towns look like brick and stone forests. The small Tuscan town of San Gimignano is still a good example although only few of the family towers have survived.[348]
- ^ The Basilica of Saint-Sernin in the city of Toulouse is one of the earliest pilgrimage churches on the Camino de Santiago ('Way of Saint James').[350]
- ^ The Church of the Virgin in the Studenica Monastery well illustrates the blending of Byzantine and Romanesque traditions in Serbia. Its west portal with its tympanum was completed by southern Italian builders in the late 12th century[353]
- ^ Artistic motifs could be disseminated over huge areas through the copying and recopying of sketches, as it is demonstrated by the similarity between wall-paintings depicting the life of the Virgin in the St Mark's Basilica in Venice and in the Cathedral of Christ's Transfiguration in the Rus' city of Pskov.[356]
- ^ Crossbows are slow to reload, which limits their use on open battlefields. In sieges, the slowness is not as big a disadvantage, as the crossbowman can hide behind fortifications while reloading.[379]
- ^ The Mongols were reportedly the first to use gunpowder in Europe in the mid-13th century.[381]
- ^ Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.[385] One town, Lübeck in Germany, lost 90 per cent of its population to the Black Death.[386]
- ^ In Bohemia, a mid-14th-century Czech treatise accused the local German artisans of plotting to keep prices high. In 1392, the guild of the bakers in the city of Riga excluded those who married a non-German women. In the town of Limerick, "No one of Irish blood or birth" could hold offices or be hired as apprentices.[389]
- ^ As happened with the Bardi and Peruzzi firms in the 1340s when King Edward III of England repudiated their loans to him.[395]
- ^ The most successful dynasties were the Luxembourgs, Habsburgs, and Jagiellonians in Central and Eastern Europe, the Trastámaras in the Mediterranean, and the Valois of Burgundy.[401]
- ^ The Luxemburgs held the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, the Habsburg were expanding in the region of Austria, and the Wittelsbachs ruled Bavaria and the Palatinate.[403]
- ^ Both Jadwiga and her elder sister the Hungarian queen Mary (r. 1382–95) had been crowned "king" to demonstrate that they were queens regnant. Jogaila ruled as Władysław II in Poland (r. 1386–1434).[423]
- ^ Although one of the most successful queens of the period, Margaret mainly ruled along with her young male relatives, first with her underage son, then with her young nephew. The Swedes first left the Kalmar Union in 1448.[426][427]
- ^ Initially a tiny principality, Muscovy gained strength against its more powerful neighbors with the Mongol khans' support. From the 1320s, Moscow was the seat of the head of the Orthodox Church in the Rus' principalities.[429][430]
- ^ The first civil war broke out when Emperor Andronikos II (r. 1282–1328) disinherited his grandson Andronikos III (r. 1328–41) for fratricide. The second civil war was fought over the regency for Andronikos III's underage son John V (r. 1341–90) between the powerful aristocrat John Kantakouzenos (d. 1383) and his opponents. Kantakouzenos was crowned co-emperor as John VI (r. 1347–54) but his conflict with John V caused the third civil war.[434]
- ^ Skanderbeg (d. 1468) resisted Ottoman conquest for more than two decades at the head of a league of Albanian lords; John Hunyadi (d. 1456) defeated the Ottomans at Belgrade, and the Moldavian prince Stephen the Great (r. 1457–1504) at Vaslui.[441]
- ^ The Bohemian Diet elected the moderate Hussite Czech aristocrat George of Poděbrady (r. 1457–71) king which provided an excuse for the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–90) to conquer parts of the Czech lands. Poděbrady was succeeded by the Catholic Polish prince Vladislaus II (r. 1471–1516) but the Diet enacted the Czechs' right to freely choose between Hussitism and Catholicism in 1485.[451]
- ^ One of the main Byzantine supporters of the church union, the erudite Basilios Bessarion (d. 1472) aroused the Italian scholars' interest in Greek studies during his exile.[454]
- ^ Although medieval documents often described people as literatus or illiteratus, estimations of literacy rate are uncertain because both terms are ambiguous.[465] One estimate gave a literacy rate of ten per cent of males and one per cent of females in 1500.[466]
- ^ The sculptures of the portal of the new Burgundian ducal mausoleum at Champmol, and the miniatures in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry ('Very Rich Hours of the Duke of Berry') are among the featuring items of Internatinal Gothic arts.[486]
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- ^ Jordan 2002, p. 308.
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- ^ Wickham 2016, p. 211.
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- ^ Watts 2014, pp. 324–327.
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- ^ Denley 2001, pp. 266–267.
- ^ Fine 2009, p. 563.
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- ^ Sedlar 1994, pp. 26, 32, 96.
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- ^ Thomson 1998, pp. 193–194.
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- ^ Hamilton 2003, pp. 136–137.
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- ^ Fried 2015, pp. 359–361.
- ^ Thomson 1998, pp. 211–213.
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Further reading
- Aberth, John (2019). Contesting the Middle Ages: Debates that are Changing our Narrative of Medieval History. ISBN 978-0-415-72930-7.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05573-4.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05575-8.
- ISBN 978-0-688-12302-4.
- ISBN 978-0-415-78065-0.
- D'Arcens, Louise (2021). World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern Textual Culture. Oxford Textual Perspectives. ISBN 978-0-19-882595-1.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05393-8.
- ISBN 978-0-226-31083-1.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05574-1.
- Kaufmann, J. E.; Kaufmann, H. W. (2004). The Medieval Fortress: Castles, Forts and Walled Cities of the Middle Ages. ISBN 978-0-2747-9776-9.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05402-7.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05403-4.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05571-0.
- ISBN 978-1-405-12964-0.
- ISBN 978-1-139-05572-7.
- ISBN 978-0-19-820648-4.
- ISBN 978-0-19-924427-0.
- Stuard, Susan Mosher, ed. (1987). Women in Medieval History and Historiography. ISBN 978-0-8122-1290-7.
External links
- De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History
- Medievalists.net News and articles about the period.
- Medieval History Database (MHDB)
- Medieval Worlds, Official website– Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.
- The Labyrinth Resources for Medieval Studies.