User:ZanderSchubert/Comparitive Politics Outline
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These are notes based on the work in the Introduction to Comparative Politics required reading and parts of the lectures, but will not contain information from the non-required readings (yes, even for the countries I had to read up on, Brazil and India). This page coud be used as two parts of a frame page, for easy viewing between two different countries (or some bourgoisie like that...)
Britain
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Making of the Modern
Not quite Europe, not quite anything else...
Industrial Revolution grew UK's dominance - first industrialised state
Most powerful during
Ind Rev promoted suffrage (for men...)
Interventionist during WWI and WWII (i.e. state control, not laissez-faire)
Shrink of decolonisation - ¿not been powerful since
Collective consensus, welfare state, then the Winter of Discontent
Thatcher: 79-90: bold policies (cut taxes, reduce welfare-state, more efficiency to privates)
New Labour
Political Economy and Development
1976: Low growth, high unemployment,
Inequality: PK/BD and Africans hugely low incomed, untreated, underrepped; women's 85.7% men's pay at best, but getting better
Governance
Powers devolved to SC, NI, WL
Parliament is
Nationalised industries (coal, iron, gas, steel)
Forces: supported widely: army still major, bobbies recently centralised and criticised
Judiciary: only see violations (less politicised than US), but under the EU aswell
Representation
House of Commons: 646 seats in '05: pass laws, provide finances thru tax, review policy: limited legislatively, but important democratically
House of Lords: unelected (nobility), c. 1200 members: final court of appeal, amend legislation
Labour: started broadining appeal postWWII, traditionally the workers' party, self-dividing in mid70s, now left of centre
Conservative: economic/élite party, considered tumoilous after '97
Liberal Democrats: formed from merger of Liberal (centrist) and Social Democrat, New Labour's policies shrunk Lib Dem counters
Nationalistic: Scottish National Party (SNP) and the Plaid Cymru
Elections: first-past-post, creates huge majority to winners
Women MPs doubled to 120 (18.2%) in '97, 118 (17.9%) in '01, 128 (19.8%) in '05 (94 in Labour), Non-Caucasian MPs 4 in '87, 6 in '92, 9 in '97 (1.4%), 12 in '01 (1.8%), 15 in '05 (2.3%)
Greatest contest between Consies and Labour in the north and urban areas, mostly Consie in south and rural areas, and SNP and Labour in SC
Culture: trust, deference to authority and competence, pragmatism, balance betweenacceptance of rules and disagreement over specific issues. Threats to those ideas in '70s: drop in union membership, New Social Movements (NSMs) e.g. feminism, anti-nuke activism and environmentalism. Threats now: Europeanisation, fragmentation with SC, WL and NI and Globalisation
Ethnicity: 8% African, Afro-Caribbean or Asian. Anti-Muslim sentiment after 9/11
Gender: Labour says their listening, but w/o specific policies.
Environmentalism grew in mid90s, GM food banned. Protests on fuel prices semi-permanently drop Blair's rating. Outcry due to BSE and fox hunting by farmers. Anti-war protests for Iraq
Transition
NI: Cease-fire in '94, Blair meets Gerry Adams of the
Reform: ¿House of Commons removal, but Blair hasn't done much yet...
Immigration, refugees and assylum cause multiculturalismophobia, and hardens policy post9/11, and there are calls to end multiculturalism and 'return to core British values'
Anti-EU stance vs bridge of US-EU relations: ambivelance and Euroscepticism
post9/11 thought suggest the painting-self-into-cornerness of Blair with Bush
France
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Making of the Modern
In Brief: Roamn
Starting 14Jul1789, national, even international, liberal, secular and democratic, revolution: Catholicism nearly wiped and pragmatism causes continual schisms
Monarchy restored, short lived 2nd Rep, Napoleonic Age, then the brief Paris Commune
Poor natural resources, too much agriculture and low pop rise stagnated growth
Vichy: the dark hour. Helps forge parliamentarian rule in the 4th rep, the 'house of cards': 6 months per government, al talk, no action
5th Rep: from '58: consie to '81, then socialist
Le Pen: knocks of favourite Jospin to become second runoff candidate vsing Chirac
Largest Muslim centre in West EU: critics US while stopping terrorism: anti-US due to too-big-for-boots-dom after Cold War
nons: EU Constitution (effectively grind-halting it), due to the 'Polish plumber'
Self-sheltering during 19thcent ruined it to new tech and development, wars w/DE caused cordialisation
Collective ID: all French are French (um...)
Political and Economic Development
Sixth largest economy globally, due to planning, de Gaulle,
France matters to the EU and vice versa
Governance
Pres and perliament are elected. Legislative and executive are not completely seperate, but deviation leads to strengthening of the executive
Two problems: shift in parties, which it handles well, and difference between party with Pres and PM (cohabitation), many thought it would bring the regime to its knees, but worked überwell
President: strong leadership (
PM: nominates cabinet, creats and shapes policies (pretty much: splits of power change)
the Bureaucracy: lifetime emploment and the 'third' arm of the government
Forces: Minor roles, but is used for peacekeeping, and police are reputed for illegal suveyance
Multi-layered government: national, regional, departmental, municiple (36K)
Representation
Bicameral (National Assembly and Senate): lost its power to the pres, bureaucracy, EU, subnational governments...
577 district seats, elected similarly to Pres
Gaullists/Union pour un Mouvement Populaire(UMP): consie. Partie Socialiste: got in power through radicle change ideas. Minor party, le Front National, first in EU to be racist, deprives legal immigrants from social benefits
Elections: support for fringe soars, voting become unstable and dwindling,
No restrictions on FR citizenship, yet no representation in government, and no presentation of religios items (crosses, turbans,
Women underrepresented in FR politics, being reconstituted by parity law (even gemnder candidates by each party)
FR in inherently protesting
Transition
No strong unionism, due to lack of nationalisation
Huge '95 strikes due to welfare restructure: 2M. Later, '02 trucking, '03 healthcare, '03 and '05 onb pensions, '04 for electricity...
Germany
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Making of the Modern
Grand Coalition of CDU and SPD, with Angela Merkel as (the first female) Chancellor
Relative homogeny, except for modern TR Gastarbeiter
Still high agriculture at 54%, and no major resources, except for little coal and iron ore
The first Reich was the Holy Roamn Empire, the Second formed by Bismarck
Uniting more reliant on cultrue than just sheer geography (cf. FR UK): 1819 tarriff union in all DE-speaker except AT (and CH) and "revolution from above"
Second Reich 1871-1918: Lower house, Reichstag, had universal suffrage; upper house, Landtag, had the actual power...
Rapid industrialisation and "the scramble for Africa" to make up for lost time
Weimar Republic '18-'33: war reparations and hyperinflation caused accusations that "stabbed DE in the back"
Third Reich '33-'45: sworn it on 20Jan33, arson at Riechtag, blamed by comms helped pass Enabling Act banning free speach, used propoganda, centralised power, glorified Germanic warrior traditions, and forced unions w/AT, then Sudetenland in Sep'38, then Poland Sep'39, then WWII
Divided: FRG/BRD West and GDR/DDR East
West: stability, welfare, strong regional govs, later full employment
East: full employment, bureaucratic, Berlin Wall
Rapid Unification post-'90, but former East a strain: decades-behind technology, worse economy than economists expectations, high unemployment, 7.5% unimifaction tax.
Economic giant, political dwarf, the economic anchor to the EU, fears that EU-ness would decrease DEness
Post-WWII openness declided post-9/11, causing unrest when anti-terrorism pomelgrates, and lack of Iraq-support eeked to US
People still fearful of powerful DE leading to WWIII, late unification's effect on the economy, lack of democracy until recently, collection vs. individuality.
Political Economy and Development
Pre-1871, regional eco-control. Post-1871, Prussian-led industrial growth, coordinated big business. War reparations by 1923 caused severe eco-crisis w/hyperinfl: Nazi
Modern Länder politics more indirect, less regulatory, not as much industry under the gov: not free nor state: state's rules but lets private work unimpeded
High wage, high welfare, prefered quality over lowering wages, adapting existing tech rather than newcreating in US, independant Bundesbank creating low inflation, but being surpassed by Euro Central Bank. Globalisation threatened DE business
Generous welfare, trying to cope with high (6%) unemployment. Early '90s had 20% of budget to unification, even today there are gaps. Masive budget cut and privitisation (especially East: 7k of 11k), and uncoping for former comms
Pre-'90s support of arts, free edu, transport systems, but unification and EUsation has undercut living standard.
Racial attacks vs. TR - xenophobic, due to West unemployment and East lack of contact
Only 62% of women in labour, some constriction due to unific (e.g. abortion removal), still mostly discriminated, and generation gaps contribute to baby-boom retirees' welfareness
Acceptance between EU and DE
Governance
Weimar was problematic due to ability to suspend freedoms in emergencies and fragmentation-caused majoritylessness
Significant Länder power and power to the lower house Bundestag vs. Bundesrat
the 5% rule: parties <5% weren't represented in the Bundestag, thus excluding minorissima parties, and four-year intervals make fragmentationlessness
Constructive Vote of no Confidence: Bundestag must elect new chancellor before no-confidencing current chancellor (i.e. concrete anlternatives)
16 Länder w/considerable powers, pres (cf. FR) vs. chancellor: elected by majority of Bundestag
The feds only employ 10% of civil servants, and overlapping responsibility makes specifications on responsibility. Rigidity has been round since the Second Reich, bureaucracy unfriendly yet respected
Semipublic companies help rebuilding without centralisation "detatched institutions", most important being healthcare and unions
Forces: powerful and agressive military since 18th cent, but post WWII put military under civilian control: 1.5% of GDP on military, police decetralised, excluding the DDR Stasi
Judiciary: major role but worst during Third Reich, created explicit rights, more so than US/UK, and courts often shape policy and is independant of other political BS
Länder enjoy autonomy, regional govs are more on economic policy than the national gov
Representation
Bundestag's members elected by public, Bundesrat by Länder govs, the five-percent rule allows greater likelyhood of coalitions
"Personalised proportional representation": two votes, one candidate one party personalises voting
Bundestag: 614 seats, causing strain in Bonn during unification. New members are often backbenched, so individual electorates may not have much say
Bundesrat: creates distribution of powers between nation and Länder, unlike US Senate, and is important with administration
Two-and-a-half party system: The Christian Democrats/CDU (in Bavaria, CSU), Kinde, Kirche, Kuche, Socialist Party (SPD), "catchall" for workers, The Greens, the "Antiparty party", the Free Democratic Party, a swing party due to allegiances for coalition w/CDU and SPD, The Linksbundnis, from former comm party
Always high voting rates, with 80-90% federally, and little swings
Diversity in political opinion shown in media, and prevention of ads has caused lack of public buyouting
Schools and unis changed by the '68 Generation to critisise old regimes, and racist attitudes trying to be stomped out: Until '98, citizenship was based on ethnicity, and created post-WWII one of the most liberal asylum system
Gender not a huge problem, but femenism behind their US kin, and DDR women were well benefited
Transition
Model of DE as an industrialised country changing
Compare on the democracy in the wake of fascism (w/JP IT ES)
Japan
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Making of the Modern
JP's LDP (Lib Dem) verge of collapse, but replaced by 80%-popular Koizumi due to his future reforms
80% urbanisation, poor natural materials except water/rice, traditional traders w/KR CN
Tokugawa Shogunate 1603-1867: strict class, feudal, ruled by
'45-'52 Allied occupation: transformation of democracy and demilitarisation (Article 9), zaibatsu dissolution, figurehead emperor, LDP wins from '55-'93, predominant-party regime (one-party democracy). Revision of US-Japan Mutual Security Treaty uproar: dependant on US and vs. USSR and CN, OPEC
Abandonment of military faith, cooperation w/US, industrial policy which created industrialisation in an illsuited environment which is failing under globilisation
Hybrid history: development more like West than its neighbours, from most aggressive to most pacifist, 'rice paddy culture', unity pre-some West, interesting comparison JP-DE
Political Economy and Development
"Rich nation with strong army", but abandoned strong army. Economical miracle late'50s-early'70s, but steady growth since Meiji of >5% until Depression devestation, yet reco0vered quickly. '35-'40 growth of machinery by 170%
Growth by policy and War booms and postWWII wiping of poverty and structural problems, and military spending (1/3 budget in '30 and 3/4 by WWII) creating productiveness and wealth competition, boost during Cold War
US tried to curve JP growth in imports, causing drop in growth, with burst bubble at end of Cold War
Huge gov role in eco since Meiji, but businesses often sold to zaibatsu, post WWII recovery
Governance
47 prefectures, 2540 miunicipalities, each subordinate and narrow level of power. Constituitional monarchy like UK, Diet elects prime minister and cabinet
Japan has the oldest surviving monarchy: until the Meiji Restoration, the emperor was also a demigod, after 1947 became a symbol of Japan and Japanese unity: Akihito is quite modern, but they live more sheltered than EU monarchs
Cabinet: headed by Diet-elected PM. Take responisibility for emperor's actions, designating cheif of Supreme Court and other normal duties
Civil servants retire at 55. Nation gov employs 800k, or 1.3%, of JP workers
Forces: Zero military, but Self-Defence Forces created in '54 and has been legimated since, but still relies of US for defence, until mid'54, local municipalities owned police, but prefectures now control them, and since the '80s they have been disciplined and efficient
Lopsided power of prefectures: 2/3 tax goes federally and limited decisionmaking abilities
Representation
Bicameral: House of Councillors w/242 seats, 6yr terms: 96 chosen nation wide and 146 by each prefecture, House of Representatives w/480 seats
only 43 LHM (8.9%) and UHM 15/121 were women, tied 96th in most women in gov
Parties: the LDP (Liberal Democratic), CGP (Clean Government), JCP (JP Comm), Social Democrativc Party and Democratic Party of Japan.
Culturally homogenous and is still important politically, yet religion is not so important
One of the best schooled people in the world, but the
JP has the largest printmedia circulation in the world, but is far conservative to US
Little foreigners: only 1.5% of JP or 1.8M, 1/3 from KR, 1/5 from CN, and 15% JP from BR
Lack of natural resources has caused JP's large nuclear power programs, but opposition has occurred to powerplant building and many protests occur on other enviro problems (Minamata disease)
Problems with Ainu: similar to AU Aboriginal (kicked out, lack of rights, alcoholism), JP citizenship dependant on jus sanguinis
Transition
Recent eco trouble and the aging population are concerns (JP has longest life expectancy in the world)
US-JP military treaties seeming to break Article 9 have been noted
Controversy with JP's neighbour:
The United States
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Note: One of the drawbacks of putting something on Wikipedia is that when the computer crashes you don't have a saved copy or an automated save by Office or whatever. Anyway, I've esentially written the first section twice now. Just so you know. Although, best of both worlds, I should type it up in, say,
Making of the Modern
Bush gained 3.5M majority, as well as majoritys in both houses: 51-55/100 Senators and 229-231/435. Bush's goals: partially privatise
Civil WarOutrage by South at anti-slavery legislation, resulted in war and stronger federal citizenship and rights of people born in the country as citizens
the New Deal era: set up to counter Depression, to control business, Social Security and subsities for ag sector
Since '68: Power divided between two parties and lack of government support w/ growth of support groups (pros, antis, movements, funda'mental'ists)
Post 9/11: imediate increase in federal power and Bush popularity to 90%, and introduction to the USAPATRIOT Act
Continual outcry at gov speniding and intrusion, and until WWII wanted isolationism. The gov in managing only parts of the economy.
Problem of identity due to immigration
Political and Economic Development
Most of growth due to private sector -
Governance
Judiciary: least defined in the Constitution, often weaker than other branches, under gain of power in late 20th cent
Sub-national governments hugely important: often test policies and provide special services
Often contradictory policies (tobacco subsities and anti-smoking taxes) and are often counter by other groups, and unclear bill-starting procedures leave people unsure on how to start bills
Representation
Envisioned so that Congress is the most powerful, but small states meeped, so a bicameral system was formed
House of Representatives, or
Liberty, equality (of opportunity) and democracy are core beliefs America-wide, but religion plays an important role, more than Europe: church attendance is growing and issues like gay marriage steer votes
Political life more than elections: protests, movements and civil involvement, which is dropping, but there are interest groups too numerous to mention
Transition
America needs to live up to its democratic ideals, and its export of culture makes it important to the world
Lower voter turnout, immigration
India
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Making of the Modern
Indira Gandhi then helped the private sector to improve eco performance, and became non-secular (Hindu). Assassinated by Sikh bodyguard due to her new religious agenda in '84, sparked riots and murders.
Instability and coalition governments since Indira, post9-11 relation w/US better
Governing eco, democracy and collective identity
Political Economy and Development
Eco under UK rule: largely ag, resource squandering/corruption, little industry due to UK imports
Post-independance: high tariffs, safeguarding interests by restricting private industry, promissed to redistribute land, but little capacity to do so.
Liberalisation, corruption and lack of foreign access prevented liberalisation, although comp software soars, as unicity of high-tech-secs. Important locally, and looked to for growth
Governance
Specific
Representation
Most voting in the Sabhas (Sabhai? Sabhan?) done on party lines, and some support for women in parliament, but only 8.3% at most recent, and little poor in parliament
Parties: Congress, ruled almost completely until '90s, originally designed to help poor, left-of-center, it has gradually rightened and lost support of poor and Muslims;
Transition
Kashmir: 65% Muslim, 35% Hindu, some want to separate from India (either independant or Pakistanisation). Directly ruled from New Dehli due to local gov problems - undemocratically ruled
Nuclear power (testing in MAy '98)
Ethnic diversity controls the democracy level
In between economically
Brazil
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Making of the Modern
The sale of
Military came into power '64 under moniker bureaucratic authoritarianism: originally allowed democratic institutions, but abolitished political parties in '65 except for ARENA ("National Renewal Alliance Party") and the oposition MDB (Brazilian Democratic Movement). Created the Brazilian Economic Miracle
A majority by the MDB and liberalisation weakened the AB (abertura, or opening), and demand of direct elections grew (Diretas Já!
Crisis in Argentina affects Brazil, but 9/11 didn't change policy, more led by social agenda
Political Economy and Development
Export-led growth on sugar, cotton, and coffee which became the engine of the BR eco, but the gov became
Governance
Military has been limited since military gov, but still major, and police violate human rights by shooting to kill and hired by thugs to kill urchins
Representation
81 member Senate and 513 member Chamber of Deputies: representation is weak, slightly based on size, except limits places on minima and maxima mean São Paulo vs Roraima is 70 to 8, when population would have 114 to 1, meaning a Roraimian is 33x more represented than a Sao Paulan (?). Little seats are given to non-whites (3% of seats held by Afro-BRs) or women (7%)
Parties: one of the most mercurial in the world. Politicians swap parties endlessly ('87-'91 time period noticed members' ave of swapping is three parties)
Most important are PFL (Party of the Liberal Front, right), PMDB (Party of the Brazilian Democratic Movement, centrist, formerly MDB), PSDB (Party of Brazilian Social Democracy, centrist, broke from MDB), PT (Workers Party, left)
Urbanisation meant more literacy, meant more voters. Modern media has 2hr/day programming during elections, more for winning parties
Differing yet homogenous, so lack of problems with cultures clashing, and race not an issue, but gender is
Differing views on the law and what happens. Catholicism promoted democracy and printed the book Nunca Mais condemning the authoritarian past, and the conservatives outcried at the CNBB's (National Council; of Brazilian Bishops') role in politics and helping health/edu in favelas
Public opinion ofter swayed by media, privately owned and can be critical. The Globo
Women's movements also common, increasing women workers to 39%, higher than other Latinamerican countries, but racial discrimination and indigenous rights not majorly addressed
Russia
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If you want a clearer map than the one in the book, I'm sorry to say that one doesn't exist. A kinda-version of a map of the Republics, Krais, Okrugs, Oblasts, Goddamns and Thingamidoowops of Russia exists, and presumably they can be found somehow...
Making of the Modern
Mikhail Gorbachev (rhymes with 'of') took control in March '85 and reformed to grow growth using four concepts: Perestroika, or restructuring, which decentralised, Glasnost, or openness, which relaxed opinion squelching, Demokratizastiia, or 'democratisation', and "New Thinking". Eventually, Section 6 of the Soviet Constitution, which states that only one party should rule, was rescinded, and non-Russians (49.2%) became more, well, non-Russian, wanting autonomy. East European Communism fell, and then the USSR.
A coup d'état in '91 was trying to stop collapse of the USSR, but helped it, Boris Yelstin took power, and the Union collapsed. Yelstin quickly started democratising the new Russian Federation, but the process was dificult. Yelstin falling ill in '99 led to March 200 elections which Vladimir Putin won. He expressed solidarity w/US post9/11, joined NATO and G8
Political and Economic Development
Renewed eco growth since USSR fall. During USSR time, all eco
53% of imports and 51% of exports in '84 were with eastern Europe, although Gorbachev broadened internation eco stuff, and many Western nations like DE helped. Current position in trade uncertain.
Governance
First Constitution written in '93 with usual democratic rights but edited by Yelstin to keep power. Problems had with trying to cope with the several different [[|Subdivisions of Russia|subnational entities]] inherited from the USSR. The early government wanted to "wipe the slate clean".
Communist Party ruled by top-down, controlled by the Politburo. Officially constitutionial based, the last being created in '77, but it was often symbolic, and a federal system, with autonomous power to the individual republics.
Semi-prespresidential system like FR but with more pres power, and the PM elected by the Duma, who focuses more on regional relations and eco issues. The PM (Putin at the time) got more power when Yelstin became ill, but after Putin's election, this changed back. Pres elected evvery four years with a maximum of two terms: Yelstin resigned New Years Eve '99 and Putin was elected March 2000, and re-elected with 71% in 2004.
Pres can issues decrees which are law until the Duma decides otherwise.
Bureaucracy still exists even though it claims to be downsizing itself. Because Putin was part of the KGB, security forces have been strengthened, and the police are 'corrupt' (can be bribed by people or the Mafia).
Relations increased with US due to common goal of protecting their country, although didn't support with troops in Iraq. The USSR was the second largest military at the time (after US), but has been reduced in size and prestige.
The Constitutional Court was formed in '91 but disbanded by Yelstin in '93.
Complex subnational units. 88 exist, and there are continual efforts to join existing regions and equalise the power between regions. Regions where Russians aren't the dominant ethnic groups, many Muslim, are also wanting more autonomy, such as Chechnya, Tatarstan and Sakha Republic. Putin has created a more unified system with the creation of seven federal districts, which oversee the regional governments. Corrupt local governments have also led to governers being chosen by the pres. Russia has problems with policy implementation.
Representation and Participation
Federal Assembly created on December 12 1993 after pres elections, with a Duma membership of 450. Good representation of minorities during Soviet rule reduced: 33% women in '84 reduced to <10%, workers 35% reduced to <1%, meaning the Duma is comprised of elite males.
Upper House, the Federation Council, has two members from each federal region.
The
Transition
Stability to becoming a marketisation and democratisation. Worries that it may have gotten 'soft authoritarianism'. Optimism has grown post-Putin presidential power period.
Eastern Europe
In this case, taken from info in [1]. The countries which are included in the map are all the former communist countries not part of the USSR, but goes into detail with Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.
Making of the Modern
Comm rule fell one country after another in '89. Turning point was '88 PL with the Solidarity, creating first real elections for fifty years, leading to a non-comm gov, negociating a dem change, setting of rebellions in DDR, CS. HU opened to AT on 10Sep89, creating mass exodus, the Berlin Wall fell, DE united Oct'90 and the USSR finally fell in '91. eastEU wanted to join the West and enter the EU, causing clashes w/ expectations and reality. Class has had trouble being identified, and national IDs a problem, especially vs nationalism/EUism
Political Economy and Development
Capitalism was synonymous with failure until 1945 for eastEU, w/unempl, inequality, greed and war, hence creating support for comm. The comm states eliminated private property, and workers had a future. By the '60s, shortages plagues eastEU, needing reform. HU tried the new eco mechanism in '68, but political discontent scrapped the idea. PL tried to enter the world sphere, but failed like the 3rd world.
Post-commfall, PL tried shock therapy, and other states tried to remove the state from the eco, creating private firms and sectors. The gov couldn't let new firms go bankrupt because they could take whole cities with them, and many businesses weren't suited to run properly. Unemployment increased, and previous comm welfare doesn't have as much scope. Poverty grows, with well-oof PL and HU at 20% below the line.
Minority problems, because for many years, everyone was the minority, national identity is fragile, and minority states were created from previous multiethnic states (CS, YU, USSR). Gender equality problems due to boosting men's chances by limiting women's, and prostitution booms. The generation gap is noticeable, but changed similar to the West.
Integration into the EU and NATO and benefitted from foreign investment, and early changes were very dificult. YU areas, Romania and Bulgaria have fallen, the rest have improved
Governance
The organisation changed little except for the top. Parliamentary systems are common, but PL has a semipres system. Federalism has not been adopted to counter unitary state during comm era, and considered a problem leading to breakups (YU, CS, USSR).
Many govs tried to make the change as easy as possible. Strong executive considered useful to speed up necessary decisions, such as PL which almost got ahead of itself at has had problems sorting out the power levels, meaning PM and pres are independent. former-YU preses more powerful than PL, but CZ less powerful, w/o ability to propose legislation or easily veto votes. Cabinet help to stabilise the eco and to organise privitisation. Surprisingly, many CEOs are in the cabinet. Modern bureaucracy has become meritocratic, but many comm civil servants stayed.
Military not a driving force compared to first the comm party and then post-comm, and has continued to be supported by the public. Police were feared due to its secrecy and permiance. Judiciary least power of the branches of gov, partly due to EU moods, unlike strong UK/US judiciary, and partly due to the courts considered just a part of the Party during comm era. HU most active judiciary, with positions of ombudsman or ombudsperson to help civil rights.
Weak subnational govs, partly due to comm era and partly due to heads still wanting control. Small communities did better under comm due to continual support from the gov vs. profit run post-comm. Due to comm party collapse, no parties in post-comm creating lack of adequate control in rural areas. Many policies were created to help EU entrance, and early policy making hectic due to problems with lobby groups
Representation
PL example: Lower House (Sejm) w/463 members and 100 member senate. Similar voting systems to rest of the west (similtaneous part-individual voting, majority bill passing, etc.). Generally low confidence rating by public throughout EEU, as low as 10% in PL, CZ, SL and HU, and there has been a massive drop in women parliamentarians.
During comm era, all one party comm system, except DDR which allowed other parties provided that they weren't opposition parties. Early post-comm ('91-'94) was heavily anti-comm, but later anti-comm didn't ring in votes.
HU entered post-comm era w/2 parties already, the liberal Alliance for Free Democrats (AFD), which gained 24% of vote, and the nationalist Hungarian Democratic Forum (HDF), which gained 42%. They have since marginalised, with the AFD dropping rapidly and the HDF becomming Socialist and eventually allied with eachother. PL was ruled by the party evolved from the comm party, the Demcratic Left Alliance (DLA), and in CZ there are obvious left and right parties, the left CSDP (CZ soc dem) and CDP (CZ dem).
Class as an ID complicated due to theoretical absense in comm era, and national ID is strong due to previous conquering of external powers and is coming to terms with Westernisation and USation w/EU joining and new immigration. Religion is used only politically, people having faith more in capitalism than Catholicism. Little ethnic minorities due to history, creating high homogenity, and gender division not noticable. Capitalist support was first off due to it not being comm, accepting early drop in life quality
Transition
Problems reconciling market eco w/dem gov. YU earliest to reform due to lack of USSR control, with changes as early as '60s, but firts post-comm election became nationalist not lib-dem, suggesting ethnic superiority. Other problems include EU (and EU and NATO) integration, creating many policies and theoretically subordinating to the EU. Strong domestic eco w/o foreign dependency. EEU gradually becoming 'accepted' in Western eyes (in study), vis-à-vis 'the other' during comm era
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 Pakistan portal |
As taken from Contempory Pakistan, Chapter IX. Therefore, order will be, um, bad, compared with the book chapters.
Creation due to problems in
Democratic institutions don't work, but keep creating a cycle of confrontation, with four military coups since Pakistan's independence, the most recent in '99, questioning the future of civility in the nation, and many people have suggested that it is a failed state
Indonesia
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| Politics of Indonesia |
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This is from State failure and state weakness in a time of terror in... something... I guess...
Not a failed state, but many observers say that it might soon disintegrate. Factors include seperationists, good socio-eco conditions for most IDs and and international support. Seperationists are only in a few provinces, but otherwise borders are uncontested. Despite the '97-'98 eco crisis and many below the poverty line, good growth, low infanticide and low inflation, and other factors plaguing other nations. Note recent
South Africa
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 South Africa portal |
Settlement began when
Nigeria
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 Nigeria portal |
Making of the Modern
Shehu Shagari of the NPN (National NG Party) ruled '79-'83, and regional polarisation, corruption and political violence increased, and fraud majority in the '83 election left a NCN majority, and the military seized power with Muhammadu Buhari gaining power, wishing dem return, but due to a failing eco, Ibrahim Babangida took over, and dem-isation was stalled to continue holding power. The '93 free election was annulled by the military, and leading to a change in leaders but stagnating dem-ing still occurred, ending when Sani Abacha
NG has continually struggled w/ethnic variety, and military left behind a strong executive with weak legislative and judiciary. Strong locally but weak internationally, ruch locally but one of the 20 poorest countries globally. Dependent on oil revenue and lack of good growth.
Political Economy and Development
Most industry is state owned, with major growth due to gov spending. During colonial era, edo was ag dependent, and was self-sufficient with food, but gov neglect dropped productivity, and drought and famine caused massive imports. A focus to oil boomed, increasing public expenditure, and eventually spent too vigurously causing skyrocketing debt. Wealth increased w/corruption, w/$12.2G diverted '88-'93, and scamming grew especially online, where it became one of the top five 'industries' by '02 earning $100M/pa. Oil created dependence on external markets and skewed eco spending to it, worsening eco in the process. Bureaucracy grew to 60% of formal sector (3M), and privitisation was hoped to reduce gov spending, but manufacturers have not given much into the eco. Eco plans were common until '85, but wasn't an adequate tool. Anti-corruption commissions began during Obasajo's recent term and initiatives such as Vision 2010 and NEEDS tried correcting eco problems, and debt reliefe has been at the top of agendas. Social welfare is nonexistant, quality of life is terrible, poverty is rife w/70% <$1/d and the country is on the verge of an AIDS epidemic.
Interethnic competition and religious cleavage has effected eco stability, and many groups such as those near the Delta have used new freedoms to address grievances, most of which has been peaceful, but some violence and military control has occured. Patriarchal pratices has also dropped ability for women to work, when they had been dominant before in ag and trading (8/469 seats are women), and many groups are growing to increase women's rights especially in the south.
Only powerful locally, such as sending forces to Liberia and Sierra Leone to stabilise them and power in ECOWAS (Eco Community of West African States), but weak outside Africa: power during oil boom enough to control US slightly vis-à-vis Angola, but its weakness caused it to fail.
Governance
Even now debates are made over how and who rules the country: two continual options used are the Anglo-American model and military rule. There has been nine constitutions since 1914, but often weren't respected by leaders. The First Republic was relatively decentralised to each of the tree regions. The Second Republic (beginning '79) was more like the US. The Fourth Republic has been presidential model w/checks and balences. 34 states and 774 local govs empowered, judiciary like US, but are top-down and authoritarian due to military past, and effeorts have been made to create pluralism.
Direct pres during 2nd Rep, during military rule heads of states varied widely from repressive regimes to weak leaders, and when Obasanjo came recently he controlled the country to help revamp eco and decorrupt. Attempts to reconsiliate with oppressed problematic, and helping areas of conflict such as the Delta region. The bureaucracy was less meritocratic and more based on patronage and ethnicity, and
New state creation leads to more officials in a power to divert funds, with doubling occurring under Babangida and Abacha's rules. Modernly, they are weak and dependent, with 90% of funds coming from fed gov. Parties are often aligned to states in a specific region, dependant on a specific minority. Lack of confidence leads to lack of tax payments, creating a vicious cycle. Policy creation has been made top-down, creating a near-military scructure in gov.
Representation
Legislature suffered neglect during military rule, leading to elected politicians in '99 not knowing how to work the system properly. Current system (former ones were like the UK then the US) has senate based on membership per state, and majorities by PNP lead to easy bribery. The pres has more power over money than US. First new policies were based on money distribution, and some politicians had to resign for being too young or corruption, being held back by pres Obasanjo. 80% of former legislators in '99 weren't reelected in '03.
Lack of authoritarian party means cleavages between social groups on parties. Strong gains by parties which aligned strongly with ethnicity, and changes with the Republics didn't change allegiances with parties/groups. General Babangida in '89 decreed only two parties should exist, one leftistish (Social Dem Party) and one rightistish (Nat Rep Convention) (or is it the other way round) which surprisingly went over ethnicity and locality. Abacha removed both the parties in '93, and riots over this halted the eco in '94, and he began a new program w/5 parties. By '97, noone knew what each party represented, and it became moot. The surprise death of Abacha 8Jun98 led to new leader
Military rule left authoritarianist in society. The nation is straddled between the modern/Western and the traditional/African cultures. Religion is a strong id, between Islam and X-ity, which have clashed, and shariah spreading threatens secularism. The press has been more lively than its neighbours, and exposés have brought down public figures.Political culture is still dominated by urban elites, organised labour has often been powerful to control gov and eco, many 'pirate capitalists' have corrupted business and gov and student activism had been powerful.
Transition
Democratisation was coordinated from above, in contrast with EEU. Major problem creating major multiethnic party, especially in opposing position to hinder corruption. Problems reconciliating power locally w/lack internationally, helping eco and keep dem.
Iran
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Government of Islamic Republic of Iran |
Making of the Modern
Problems w/ reconciling democracy w/ theocracy. Most dominant Gulf power, and a possible 'clash of civilisations'
Political Economy and Development
IR became part of the world system late19thcent, but previously was part of routes CN-EU, and expansion grew due to rail and telegraph. Exports were carpets and ag products like silk, rice, tobacco and opium, with imports of mostly industrial products. Trade created eco dependency, like most of the Third World, manufactured good ruined traditional crafts, and cash crops were produced instead of food crops, creating famines. Oil also propelled the eco, financing 90% of imports and 80% of the national budget, allowing it to create massive development, but this created little taxation/representation and diversifying eco didn't work, with 97% eco still on oil by '79. Much of the oil money was squandered, but much was also put into social development, becoming one of the fastest developing Third World countries, with edu, health and GDP growth. However, little was trickling down and many peasents became landless. Some small industrialisation was created but too little, health and edu was still terrible, and pop explosion caused massive income disparity. Class was coupled with modern/traditional divisions, with majority lower traditional/rural (45%). Gharbzadegi (Plague from the West) pamphlet claimed West and urbanisation was destroying Iran, and
Oil led to the Shah to play a role in international politics, w/2nd largest OPEC nation and was able to finance militarily and strategic possession of islands that controlled the Strait of Hormuz
Governance
Unique democratic theocracy. The Leader, originally Khomeini, was imam of IR and he was given wide power to link the three branches, was commander-in-cheif and nominates chief judges, half (6/12) the Guardian Council which can veto bills and various religious officials. The Assembly of Religious Experts have also gained power on the theocratic side, effectively becoming an upper house. Laws are supposed to be shariah and therefore interpreted by the clergy. The pres is elected quadrennially, must be Shi'a and proposes legislation, chooses officials. The bureaucracy has grown post-Revolution, the Cultural and Islamic Guidance Ministry enforces public conduct, and the clergy monopolises the bureacracy. There are many smeipublic institutions who are controlled by clergy but are otherwise independent, the army is easily controlled byt the government, shariah's control of courts has caused some modern lawyers to resign in disgust but has become Westernised especially with punishment, and the nation is highly centralised and local elections only occured in '99, and in '03 there was high absention. Policy making is cumbersome and fractional, clerics gradually divided into two groups, conservative and statist, creating gridlock.
Representation
If the people want theocracy, is theocracy a democracy? The Majles (290 members over 16yo) are elected by the public and can create laws with the approval of the the Guardian Council, choose half the members of the Council, remove cabinet members through 0confidence. Political Parties were encouraged until Khatami lead in '97, with major parties being the Islamic IR Participation Front, the Islamic Labour Party (both founded by Khatami), Servants of Reconstruction, the Liberation Movement, the National Front, the
Transition
Theocracy and democracy. External forces, such as Bush saying Iran is part of the '
China
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State representative
Executive organ
Military organ
Supervisory organ
Judicial organs
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 China portal |
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Making of the Modern
Winning of the
Political Economy and Development
Eco growth since '70s has been "one of the centuries greatest economic miracles", has the second largest eco behind US, income has risen 20x rurally 15x urbanly, 300M have been raised from poverty. In the Maoist era, the first point was to stabilise eco and ran it, but badly. Under Deng Xiaoping, reforms took place and reduced gov control in eco, becoming market friendly. SOEs (state owned enterprises) quartered in number, 90% of Beijing business is private, national GDP grows 7.6%pa. Socialist market eco. Land reform and redistribution created collective lands in communes, but has been freed with individual contracts, and rural industry spreading was one of the fastest growing PRC eco sectors, but have been used too much for money rather than public support and income levels have stagnated or even dropped. Market eco transformation has been considered by some too be going too fast, and hope that they can prove only strong govs can stabilise the eco.
Market freedom has brought freedom but also crime increase and prostitution. Work now depend on effort, making people work harder, but raises unemployment, health care is failing, many people are migrating to cities, and corruption has grown. Inequality has grown, not only eco but also gender, leading to high rural female suicide, and environment damage mean 80% of PRC's rivers are polluted and rural areas are the dirtiest in the world.
After Deng, trade became the central component of eco drive, becoming the third largest trading nation by '04 after US and DE worth $1.1T, much of it w/East Asia (JP, KR, Hong Kong and Taiwan) and the US, surpassing JP as country with the largest trade deficit w/US w/
Governance
Only comm nations left are Cuba, North Korea, Laos, Vietnam and the PRC. Mao had supremacy with his
The PRG gov is seperate from the Comm Party, but the party controls the gov due to no other parties. Personal connections are/have been more important than formal arraingements: even after Deng lost power and was ill he still had to have approval on anything. The party is more symbolic, essentially agreeing with what the leader says. The strongest organisations are the top excecutives: the 24 member Politburo and its 9 member Standing Committee. Top position was chairman of the Committee, and shift from Mao-Deng to Jiang-Hu went from revolutionary to technocratic. Comm party has a heirarchy from top to bottom, subject to their higher-ups. The bureaucracy varies in size depending on level of planning needed, but has about 40M members, but most of them just hold positions like teachers or heads of state run institutions. Plans have been made to reduce its size by 10% 5-10yrs, and even to limit officials time in power. The military (the People's Liberation Army
Representation
Socialist democracy. Representation and participation are important and there are many ways the public can influence the government, although they are all controled by the party. The National People's Congress is unicameral, has 3M members based either geographically or to represent the PLA., 73% are Party members with others from minor powerless parties or are partyless. Policies are passed or blocked by vast majorities, and eco has replaced ideology as a main priority. The CCP has 70M members, 5% of PRC pop, the largest party globally. The Comm Youth League also has 70M 14-28yo. 8 noncomm parties exist but total 1/2M membership and are opposition. Elections are just mechanisms to promote the CCP's legimacy, and are indirect: the lower downs vote for the higherups, and pre80s only one candidate was available for some posts, but has since been changed to allow multiple candidates and secrt ballot.
The
Patron-client politics strong and independent organisations aren't allowed political control in any way. The largest is the ACFTU (All-China Fed of Trade Unions). Many NGOs have grown aswell, but must register w/gov and steer clear of politics. No major public protests or demonstrations post Tiananmen Square, and small protests occur near PRC borders, such as Falun Gong
Transition
Change rurally. Eco buying legimacy of CCP. Aging without becoming rich abnnormal (cf. DE/JP) and AIDS potentially could crisis. Dem problems: not likely to become dem as it has never been for Myrs, but demisation in Taiwan creates hope for deming PRC. Totalitarianistic comm worked, but why? Third world status.
Notes
Abbrevs.:
¿ - The 'does/was/is/did/will/could it really?' marker